CONTEST WITH CARTHAGE, 264-202 B.C.
The Vision of Anchises.—Rome’s Heroes.
‘Ille triumphata Capitolia ad alta Corintho
Victor aget currum, caesis insignis Achivis.
Eruet ille Argos Agamemnoniasque Mycenas,
Ipsumque Aeaciden, genus armipotentis Achilli,
Ultus avos Troiae, templa et temerata Minervae.
Quis te, magne Cato, tacitum, aut te, Cosse, relinquat?
Quis Gracchi genus, aut geminos, duo fulmina belli,
Scipiadas, cladem Libyae, parvoque potentem
Fabricium, vel te sulco, Serrane, serentem?
Quo fessum rapitis, Fabii? Tu Maximus ille es,
Unus qui nobis cunctando restituis rem.’
.......
‘Aspice, ut insignis spoliis Marcellus opimis
Ingreditur, victorque viros supereminet omnes!
Hic rem Romanam, magno turbante tumultu,
Sistet, eques sternet Poenos Gallumque rebellem,
Tertiaque arma patri suspendet capta Quirino.’
Vergil, Aen. vi. 836-846, 855-859.
836 Ille = L. Mummius Achaicus, destroyed Corinth, 146 B.C.
838 Ille = L. Aemilius Paullus, crushed Perseus (= Aeaciden l. 839) at Pydna, 168 B.C.
841 Cosse = Cornelius Cossus, won Spolia Opima a second time, 428 B.C.
842 Gracchi genus, e.g. (i.) Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, twice Consul 215, 212 B.C., in 2nd Punic War; (ii.) T. S. G. distinguished in Spain; (iii.) the two great Tribunes, Tiberius and Gaius.
843 Scipiadas = (i.) Scipio Africanus Maior, victor at Zama, 202 B.C.; (ii.) Scipio Africanus Minor, destroyed Carthage, 146 B.C.
844 Fabricium, Consul 282 and 278 B.C. in war with Pyrrhus. Proof against bribes.
Serrane = Regulus, victor at Ecnomus, 256 B.C., a prisoner, 255 B.C. True to his word.
845 Maximus = Q. Fabius M. Cunctator, Dictator after Cannae. The Shield of Rome.
846 From the Annals of Ennius (239-169 B.C.), often quoted.
855 Marcellus, five times Consul. Took Syracuse 212 B.C. The Sword of Rome.
857 magno . . . tumultu = when a great upheaving shakes it.—Page.
Tumultus (as Cic. tells us) is specially used of a rising in Italy or in Gaul, as it was close to Italy. (Elsewhere = bellum.)
858 Sistet, . . . sternet. Notice the antithesis and alliteration (assonance).
The Vision of Anchises is the imperishable record of the national life, where the poet ‘sums up in lines like bars of gold the hero-roll of the Eternal City.’—Myers.
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
The Foundation of Carthage, 878 B.C.
Pygmalion, cognita sororis fuga, cum impio bello fugientem persequi pararet, aegre precibus matris deorumque minis victus quievit. . . . Itaque Elissa delata in Africae sinum incolas eius loci adventu peregrinorum mutuarumque rerum commercio 5 gaudentes in amicitiam sollicitat. Dein empto loco, qui corio bovis tegi posset, in quo fessos longa navigatione socios, quoad proficisceretur, reficere posset, corium in tenuissimas partes secari iubet atque ita maius loci spatium, quam petierat, occupat: unde 10 postea ei loco Byrsae nomen fuit. Confluentibus deinde vicinis locorum, qui spe lucri multa hospitibus venalia inferebant, sedesque ibi statuentibus ex frequentia hominum velut instar civitatis effectum. est. . . . Itaque consentientibus omnibus Carthago 15 conditur, statuto annuo vectigali pro solo urbis. In primis fundamentis caput bubulum inventum est, quod auspicium fructuosae quidem, sed laboriosae perpetuoque servae urbis fuit; propter quod in alium locum urbs translata. Ibi quoque equi caput repertum, 20 bellicosum potentemque populum futurum significans, urbi auspicatam sedem dedit. Tunc ad opinionem novae urbis concurrentibus gentibus brevi et populus et civitas magna facta.
Justinus, xviii. 5.
1 Pygmalion, King of Tyre, murdered Sychaeus, husband of Elissa (Dido).
4 sinum = Gulf of Tunis. (See Murray’s Classical Atlas.)
5 peregrinorum = of strangers. per + ager. Cf. pilgrim. Fr. pèlerin.
mutuarum rerum commercio = barter.
11 Byrsae, i.e., later, the Citadel quarter, as if from βύρσα = a hide, prob. corrupted from Phoen. Bozra (= a fort). So Carthage = Kirjath (city); cp. Kirjath-Arba (Hebron), and Hannibal (= Hanniel) = the grace of Baal.
14 velut instar c. = as if the semblance of a state; cf. ‘instar montis equus,’ Verg.—Post.
17 bubulum = of an ox, adj. from bos.
22 auspicatam = auspicious, in active sense.
Parallel Passages. Verg. Aen. i. 336-368, 418-438, and Aen. iv. 21-22.
References. Bosworth Smith, Carthage and the Carthaginians.—Ihne, Hist. of Rome, vol. ii. pp. 3-21.
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
Aeneas views the Building of Carthage, circ. 878 B.C.
Iamque ascendebant collem, qui plurimus urbi
Imminet adversasque aspectat desuper arces.
Miratur molem Aeneas, magalia quondam,
Miratur portas strepitumque et strata viarum.
Instant ardentes Tyrii pars ducere muros
Molirique arcem et manibus subvolvere saxa,
Pars optare locum tecto et concludere sulco;
Iura magistratusque legunt sanctumque senatum;
Hic portus alii effodiunt; hinc lata theatris
Fundamenta locant alii, immanesque columnas
Rupibus excidunt, scaenis decora alta futuris.
Qualis apes aestate nova per florea rura
Exercet sub sole labor, cum gentis adultos
Educunt fetus, aut cum līquentia mella
Stipant et dulci distendunt nectare cellas,
Aut onera accipiunt venientum, aut agmine facto
Ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent:
Fervet opus, redolentque thymo fragrantia mella.
‘O fortunati, quorum iam moenia surgunt!’
Aeneas ait, et fastigia suspicit urbis.
Vergil, Aen. i. 419-438.
419 plurimus = in huge mass, with the predicate imminet.
421 magalia = huts, a Carthaginian (Phoenician) word. Cf. μέγαρον.
422 strata viarum = stratas vias = the paved roads.—Sidgwick.
423, 424, 425 ducere . . . moliri . . . subvolvere . . . optare . . . concludere, dependent on the idea of eagerness or striving in instant.—S.
426 Vergil is thinking, as often, of Roman institutions, and not of what was appropriate to heroic times. Cf. Aen. i. 507-8.
430-436 This simile is a reproduction of Georg. iv. 162-169. Cf. Milton, Par. Lost, i. 768:
‘As bees
In springtime, when the sun with Taurus rides,
Pour forth their populous youth about the hive.’
432 līquentia = liquid, from līquor, dep. Elsewhere Vergil uses lĭquens from lĭqueo.
433 Stipant = pack, the notion of pushing and tightness being given in the very sound of the heavy overhanging spondees in this line.—S.
435 Ignavum . . . arcent = drive the drones, a slothful herd, from the enclosure. Notice the order.—Page.
437 ‘The want of a city is the key-note of the Aeneid.’—Conington.
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
A Roman Martyr.
Country before Expediency.
M. Atilius Regulus, cum consul iterum in Africa ex insidiis captus esset duce Xanthippo Lacedaemonio, iuratus missus est ad senatum, ut, nisi redditi essent Poenis captivi nobiles quidam, rediret ipse Carthaginem. Is cum Romam venisset, utilitatis 5 speciem videbat, sed eam, ut res declarat, falsam iudicavit: quae erat talis: manere in patria, esse domui suae cum uxore, cum liberis, quam calamitatem accepisset in bello, communem fortunae bellicae iudicantem tenere consularis dignitatis 10 gradum. . . . Itaque quid fecit? In senatum venit, mandata exposuit, sententiam ne diceret recusavit: quam diu iure iurando hostium teneretur, non esse se senatorem. . . . Cuius cum valuisset auctoritas, captivi retenti sunt, ipse Carthaginem 15 rediit neque eum caritas patriae retinuit nec suorum, . . . ‘At stulte, qui non modo non censuerit captivos remittendos, verum etiam dissuaserit.’ Quo modo stulte? etiamne, si reipublicae conducebat? potest autem, quod inutile reipublicae sit, id cuiquam 20 civi utile esse?
Cicero, De Officiis, iii. 99, 100.
1 consul. Regulus was Consul 261 and 256 B.C., and Proconsul in Africa 255 B.C., when he was defeated and taken prisoner by Xanthippus.
6 speciem = the specious (plausible) appearance (semblance).
12, 13 sententiam . . . recusavit = declined to give his own opinion on the case.
13 iure iurando (sc. dato) = by the oath sworn to his enemies.
17 ‘At stulte’ (sc. fecit) = ‘But, it may he said, he acted like a fool.’
19 etiamne (sc. stulte fecit) = What, how did he act like a fool, if . . .—Holden.
20, 21 potest autem . . . utile esse. Cf. Ὅ τῇ πόλει οὐκ ἔστι βλαβερὸν οὐδὲ τὸν πολίτην βλάπτει = that which is not harmful (βλαβερόν = inutile) to the State is not harmful to the citizen.
Parallel Passages. Polybius, i. 31-36 (he makes no mention of the embassy of Regulus); Pliny, Ep. vii. 2 (interesting letter on the death of Regulus); and espec. Hor. Od. III. v. 13-end.
‘With counsel thus, ne’er else aread [advised],
He nerved the Fathers’ weak intent,
And, girt by friends that mourn’d him, sped
Into illustrious banishment.’—C.
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
[A.] First Roman Naval Victory near Mylae, 260 B.C.
C. Duilius, primo Punico bello a Romanis dux contra Carthaginienses missus, cum videret eos multum mari valere, classem magis validam quam decoram aedificavit, et manus ferreas, quas corvos vocabant, instituit. His, quas ante pugnam hostes 5 valde deriserant, in pugna ipsa ad Liparas insulas commissa naves hostium comprehendit, easque partim cepit, partim demersit. Dux classis Punicae Carthaginem fugit, et ex senatu quaesivit quid faceret. Omnibus ut pugnaret succlamantibus: 10 ‘Feci,’ inquit, ‘et victus sum.’ Sic poenam crucis effugit, nam hac poena dux, re male gesta, apud Poenos afficiebatur. Duilius autem victor primum triumphum maritimum Romae egit, et ad memoriam victoriae columna rostrata in foro posita est. 15
(Adapted) Cf. Florus, I. xviii. 7-10.
4 corvos = crows (the κόρακες of Polybius), boarding-bridges. A broad movable ladder, fastened to the foremast, and held in position by a rope. When the rope was let go, the iron hook at the upper end of the ladder penetrated the deck of an enemy’s ship.
6 ad Liparas insulas = Aeoliae Insulae (Lipari Islands), N.E. of Sicily. Mylae was on a promontory S.E. of these Islands.
8 Dux, i.e. Hannibal, the defender of Agrigentum 262 B.C.
[B.] Unique honour conferred on Duilius.
C. Duilium, qui Poenos classe primus devicerat, redeuntem a cena senem saepe videbam puer; delectabatur cereo funali et tibicine, quae sibi nullo exemplo privatus sumpserat: tantum licentiae dabat gloria.
Cicero, De Senectute, xiii. § 44.
18 cereo funali,* i.e. torchlight.
nullo exemplo = without any precedent.
18-19 sibi . . . sumpserat. Cicero is wrong: more probably the honour was conferred on Duilius by a vote of the Comitia Tributa.
19 dabat = excused; lit. granted, allowed.— J. S. Reid.
* The funale was a torch composed of twigs twisted into a rope (funis) and dipped in pitch or oil.—J. S. R.
References. Polybius, i. 22, for a description of the corvi, κόρακες. Sir Andrew Barton (Percy’s Reliques). Lord Howard says:—
‘Were twenty shippes, and he but one,
I swear by kirke and bower and hall,
He would overcome them every one
If once his beames they do down fall.’
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
Carthaginian Victory off Drepana, 249 B.C.
Rashness of Claudius.
Praedictiones vero et praesensiones rerum futurarum quid aliud declarant nisi hominibus ea ostendi, monstrari, portendi, praedici? Ex quo illa ostenta, monstra, portenta, prodigia dicuntur. Quod si ea ficta credimus licentia fabularum, Mopsum, Tiresiam, 5 Amphiaraum, Calchantem, Helenum, quos tamen augures ne ipsae quidem fabulae adscivissent, si res omnino repudiaret, ne domesticis quidem exemplis docti numen deorum conprobabimus? Nihil nos P. Claudi bello Punico primo temeritas movebit, qui 10 etiam per iocum deos irridens, cum cavea literati pulli non pascerentur, mergi eos in aquam iussit, ut biberent, quoniam esse nollent? Qui risus, classe devicta, multas ipsi lacrimas, magnam populo Romano cladem attulit. Quid? Collega eius Iunius 15 eodem bello nonne tempestate classem amisit, cum auspiciis non paruisset? Itaque Claudius a populo condemnatus est, Iunius necem sibi ipse conscivit.
Cicero, De Nat. Deorum, II. 3. 7-8.
3 ostenta . . . dicuntur = are called in Latin ‘ostenta,’ ‘monstra,’ etc.—Walford.
4 prodigium for prodicium = pro + √dic- δεικ- = point out.
5 Mopsum, etc. = all those stories about Mopsus, etc., in apposition to ea: poetical construction.
Mopsum, the prophet who accompanied the Argonauts.
Tiresiam, the blind prophet of Thebes.
6 Amphiaraum, the seer of Argos. One of the Seven against Thebes.
Helenus, son of Priam. A seer of the Iliad and the Aeneid.
10 P. Claudi temeritas. P. Cl. Pulcher (son of Appius Claudius, the blind Censor) defeated by Adherbal off Drepana (N.W. corner of Sicily, between Eryx and Lilybaeum).
15 Iunius. L. J. Pullus, consul 249 B.C. His fleet was destroyed by a storm off Pachynus (C. Passaro) the same year.
Parallel Passage. Florus ii. 2 says that ‘Claudius was overthrown, not by the enemy, but by the gods themselves, whose auspices he had despised.’
The Defeat off Drepana. ‘The reason of the defeat lay in the superiority of the Carthaginian admiral and seamen, and the inexperience of Claudius and of his crews, consisting mainly of landsmen who knew nothing of the sea. This disaster and the destruction of the fleet of Junius crowned the series of misfortunes which befell the Romans in the year 249 B.C., the most dismal time of the whole war.’—Ihne.
FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.
Victory of Lutatius off the Aegates Insulae, 241 B.C.
Peace with Carthage.
[A.] Interim Carthaginienses classe apud insulas Aegates a C. Lutatio, consule Romanorum, superati statuerunt belli facere finem, eamque rem arbitrio permiserunt Hamilcaris. Ille, etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit, quod 5 patriam, exhaustam sumptibus, diutius calamitates belli ferre non posse intellegebat, sed ita, ut statim mente agitaret, si paulum modo res essent refectae, bellum renovare Romanosque armis persequi, donicum aut virtute vicissent aut victi manus dedissent. 10
Corn. Nepos, Hamilcar, i.
1 apud insulas Aegates, the Goat Islands, off the W. Coast of Sicily, between Drepana and Lilybaeum (Marsala).
3 statuerunt belli facere finem. This victory led to the close of the First Punic War.
5 paci serviendum = to devote himself to (obtaining) peace.
9 donicum (= donec), lit. ‘at the time of day when ——’
10 virtute vicissent = they (the Romans) should have conquered by (superior) prowess.
Hic dum stagnosi spectat templumque domosque
Literni ductor, varia splendentia cernit
Pictura belli patribus monumenta prioris
Exhausti: nam porticibus signata manebant,
Quis inerat longus rerum et spectabilis ordo.
.......
Addiderant geminas medio consurgere fluctu
Aegates: lacerae circum fragmenta videres
Classis et effusos fluitare in gurgite Poenos.
Possessor pelagi pronaque Lutatius aura
Captivas puppes ad litora victor agebat.
Silius Italicus, vi. 653-657, 684-688.
653-654 stagnosi Literni. Town and River on the coast of Campania, N. of Cumae. The River flows through a marsh = Literna palus.
654 ductor = Hannibal.
654-657 Silius (who closely imitates Vergil) makes Hannibal view the sculptured memorials of the First Punic War, just as Aeneas sees carved the tale of Troy. Verg. Aen. i. 445-493.
Parallel Passage. Polybius, i. caps. 59-63.
Terms of Peace. Carthage engaged to evacuate Sicily; not to make war upon Hiero of Syracuse; to give up all Roman prisoners without ransom, and to pay 2200 talents in twenty years.
Sicily the first Roman Province.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
[A.] Great Importance of the Second Punic War.
In parte operis mei licet mihi praefari bellum maxime omnium memorabile, quae unquam gesta sint, me scripturum, quod Hannibale duce Carthaginienses cum populo Romano gessere. Nam neque validiores opibus ullae inter se civitates gentesque contulerunt 5 arma, neque his ipsis tantum unquam virium aut roboris fuit, et haud ignotas belli artes inter sese, sed expertas primo Punico conferebant bello, et adeo varia fortuna belli ancepsque Mars fuit, ut propius periculum fuerint, qui vicerunt. Odiis etiam prope 10 maioribus certarunt quam viribus, Romanis indignantibus quod victoribus victi ultro inferrent arma, Poenis, quod superbe avareque crederent imperitatum victis esse.
3 Hannibale duce. Polybius called the war of which Hannibal was the life and soul the ‘Hannibalian War.’
6 his ipsis, sc. Romanis Poenisque, with validiores.
6-7 virium aut roboris = offensive or defensive strength.—R.
8 expertas = tested, in a passive sense.
9 ut propius . . . vicerunt, e.g. after Cannae, 216 B.C.
12 ultro inferrent arma = should presume to attack.—Dimsdale.
13 Poenis, sc. indignantibus.
superbe avareque. ‘When the war of the mercenaries broke out in Africa (241-238 B.C.) Rome availed herself of the distress of Carthage to extort the cession of Sardinia, and raised the war indemnity by 1200 talents.’—Ihne.
[B.] The Oath of the Boy Hannibal.
Fama est etiam, Hannibalem annorum ferme 15 novem, pueriliter blandientem patri Hamilcari, ut duceretur in Hispaniam, cum, perfecto Africo bello, exercitum eo traiecturus sacrificaret, altaribus admotum, tactis sacris, iure iurando adactum, se, cum primum posset, hostem fore populo Romano. 20
Livy, xxi. 1.
16 blandientem = coaxingly entreating.—D.
17 perfecto Africo bello, i.e. between Carthage and her mutinous mercenaries, 241-237 B.C.
Parallel Passage. For Hannibal’s Oath, Livy xxxv. 19.
Importance of the War. ‘It was a struggle for existence, for supremacy or destruction. It was to decide whether the Graeco-Roman civilisation of the West or the Semitic (Carthaginian) civilisation of the East was to be established in Europe, and to determine its history for all future time.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
‘The paths of glory lead but to the grave.’
147
Expende Hannibalem: quot libras in duce summo
Invenies?....
Additur imperiis Hispania, Pyrenaeum
Transilit. Opposuit natura Alpemque nivemque:
Diducit scopulos et montem rumpit aceto.
Iam tenet Italiam, tamen ultra pergere tendit:
‘Actum,’ inquit, ‘nihil est, nisi Poeno milite portas
Frangimus et media vexillum pono Subura.’
O qualis facies et quali digna tabella,
Cum Gaetula ducem portaret belua luscum!
Exitus ergo quis est? O gloria! vincitur idem
Nempe et in exilium praeceps fugit, atque ibi magnus
Mirandusque cliens sedet ad praetoria regis,
Donec Bithyno libeat vigilare tyranno.
Finem animae, quae res humanas miscuit olim,
Non gladii, non saxa dabunt, nec tela, sed ille
Cannarum vindex et tanti sanguinis ultor,
Anulus. I, demens, et saevas curre per Alpes,
Ut pueris placeas et declamatio fias.
Juvenal, Sat. x. 147-167.
147-148 Expende . . . invenies = if you lay (lit. ‘weigh’) Hannibal in the scale, how many pounds will you find in the greatest of commanders?—Duff. Cf. Ov. Met. xii. 615:
Iam cinis est: et de tam magno restat Achille
Nescio quid parvam quod non bene compleat urnam.
156 media Subura, i.e. in the heart of Rome. The Subura was one of the busiest and most populous quarters of Rome.
157 O qualis facies . . . tabella = what a sight and how fit for caricature! lit. ‘worthy of what a picture’ i.e. how ridiculous a picture it would have made.—Hardy.
158 luscum = one-eyed. Hannibal lost an eye from disease, while marching through the country flooded by the Arno, 217 B.C.
160 in exilium, i.e. first to Antiochus of Syria, and then to Prusias of Bithynia.
166 anulus. Hannibal took poison which he carried about in a ring (anulus) 183 B.C., aged 76.
167 ut . . . fias = to suit the taste of schoolboys, and become the subject of their speeches.—Duff.
For the thought, cf. Shak. Ham. V. i. 232:
Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay,
Might stop a hole to keep the wind away:
O, that that earth, which kept the world in awe
Should patch a wall to expel the winter’s flaw!
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Character of Hannibal.
Nunquam ingenium idem ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum, habilius fuit. Itaque haud facile discerneres, utrum imperatori an exercitui carior esset; neque Hasdrubal alium quemquam praeficere malle, ubi quid fortiter ac strenue agendum 5 esset, neque milites alio duce plus confidere aut audere. Plurimum audaciae ad pericula capessenda, plurimum consilii inter ipsa pericula erat. Nullo labore aut corpus fatigari aut animus vinci poterat. Caloris ac frigoris patientia par; cibi potionisque 10 desiderio naturali, non voluptate modus finitus; vigiliarum somnique nec die nec nocte discriminata tempora: id, quod gerendis rebus superesset, quieti datum; ea neque molli strato neque silentio accersita; multi saepe militari sagulo opertum humi iacentem 15 inter custodias stationesque militum conspexerunt. Vestitus nihil inter aequales excellens; arma atque equi conspiciebantur. Equitum peditumque idem longe primus erat; princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus conserto proelio excedebat. Has tantas viri virtutes 20 ingentia vitia aequabant, inhumana crudelitas, perfidia plus quam Punica, nihil veri, nihil sancti, nullus deum metus, nullum ius iurandum, nulla religio.
Livy, xxi. 4.
2 habilius = better adapted, lit. ‘more easily handled’; cf. our handy.
7 ad pericula capessenda = in incurring peril.
12 discriminata = regulated, lit. ‘divided off’; cf. dis-cerno, dis-crimen.
14 accersita (= arcessita) = wooed.
15 sagulo = in his military cloak: diminutive of sagum.
21 inhumana crudelitas. Polybius says that many of his alleged cruelties were to be set down to his namesake H. Monomachus.
21-23 perfidia plus quam Punica. ‘This does not seem to have been anything worse than a consummate adroitness in laying traps for his enemies.’—Church and Brodribb. Cf. ‘Perfidious Albion.’
23 nulla religio = no scruples, i.e. no force binding (re + ligare) or restraining from wrong-doing, no conscience.
Parallel Passages. Livy xxvi. 41 of Scipio Africanus Minor—Sallust Cat. 5 of Catiline—Polybius ix. 22-26 (important).
‘Bitterly as the Romans hated, reviled, and persecuted Carthage, the most deadly poison of their hatred they poured upon Hannibal; they did not hesitate to blacken his memory by the most revolting accusations.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
The Siege of Saguntum, 219 B.C.
Angulus muri erat in planiorem patentioremque quam cetera circa vallem vergens; adversus eum vineas agere instituit, per quas aries moenibus admoveri posset. Sed ut locus procul muro satis aequus agendis vineis fuit, ita haudquaquam prospere, 5 postquam ad effectum operis ventum est, coeptis succedebat. Et turris ingens imminebat, et murus, ut in suspecto loco, supra ceterae modum altitudinis emunitus erat, et iuventus delecta, ubi plurimum periculi ac timoris ostendebatur, ibi vi maiore obsistebant. 10 Ac primo missilibus summovere hostem nec quicquam satis tutum munientibus pati; deinde iam non pro moenibus modo atque turri tela micare, sed ad erumpendum etiam in stationes operaque hostium animus erat; quibus tumultuariis certaminibus 15 haud ferme plures Saguntini cadebant quam Poeni. Ut vero Hannibal ipse, dum murum incautius subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit, tanta circa fuga ac trepidatio fuit, ut non multum abesset, quin opera ac vineae desererentur. 20
Livy, xxi. 7.
2 quam cetera (sc. loca) circa = than the neighbouring country.
4-5 ut . . . ita = lit. as . . . so, i.e. although . . . yet . . .
6 postquam . . . ventum est = when they came to attack the wall in earnest. Effectum (verbal noun in us) = the completion of the work, i.e. the bringing up of the ram.—Dimsdale.
8 ut in suspecto loco = as (was natural) in a suspected (i.e. weak) spot.—Capes.
11-12 nec quicquam . . . pati = they allowed those engaged on the works no sort of safety, lit. not (even) moderate safety.—D.
18 adversum femur = in the front of the thigh.
SAGUNTUM (Murviedro = muri veteres) in Hispania Tarraconensis (about 20 miles S. of Valencia) was supposed to have been founded by Greek colonists from Zacynthos (Zante). In 226 B.C. Rome made an alliance with Saguntum and Hasdrubal was informed of the fact. Hannibal attacked the city ostensibly on the ground of its having molested subject-allies of Carthage, but really because he was unwilling to leave a strong city in his rear, and wished to obtain funds. After an eight months’ siege and a heroic defence, characteristic of Spanish towns, it was taken by storm 219 B.C.
Nec pavet hic populus (Massilia) pro libertate subire
Obsessum Poeno gessit quod Marte Saguntum.
Lucan, Phars. iii. 349-50.
Cf. also Juv. Sat. xv. 113-14, and the siege of Saragossa, 1808 A.D.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
[A.] The Dream of Hannibal.
Hannibalem Coelius scribit, cum cepisset Saguntum, visum esse in somnis a Iove in deorum concilium vocari; quo cum venisset, Iovem imperasse ut Italiae bellum inferret, ducemque ei unum e concilio datum: quo illum utentem cum exercitu progredi 5 coepisse; tum ei ducem illum praecepisse ne respiceret; illum autem id diutius facere non potuisse elatumque cupiditate respexisse: tum visam belluam vastam et immanem, circumplicatam serpentibus, quacunque incederet, omnia arbusta, virgulta, tecta 10 pervertere.
Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 24, 49.
1 Coelius, i.e. L. Coelius Antipater (a contemporary of C. Gracchus 123 B.C.), wrote Annales, which contained a valuable account of the Second Punic War. Livy borrows largely from his narrative.
7 id . . . non potuisse. Cf. Livy ‘temperare oculis nequivisse = he could not restrain his eyes.’
8 cupiditate = from curiosity. Cf. Livy ‘cura ingeni humani = with the natural curiosity of the human mind.’
8-11 visam belluam . . . pervertere = he thought he saw a monster overthrowing.
[B.] The Interpretation—Vastitatem esse Italiae.
[200]
Hoc trepidus monstro . . . ardua quae sit,
Scitatur, pestis, terrasque urgentia membra
Quo ferat et quosnam populos deposcat hiatu.
Cui gelidis almae Cyllenes editus antris:
‘Bella vides optata tibi: te maxima bella,
Te strages nemorum, te moto turbida caelo
Tempestas, caedesque virum, magnaeque ruinae
Idaei generis, lacrimosaque fata sequuntur.
Quantus per campos populatis montibus actus
Contorquet silvas squalenti tergore serpens,
Et late umectat terras spumante veneno:
Tantus, perdomitis decurrens Alpibus atro
Involves bello Italiam, tantoque fragore
Eruta convulsis prosternes oppida muris.’
Silius Italicus, iii. 198-213.
202 hiatu = with its wide-open mouth.
203 Cyllenes, i.e. Mt. Cyllene (Zyria), the highest point in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and Achaia, where Hermes is said to have been born: hence styled Cyllenius.
209 tergore = tergo. poet. and post-Augustian.
Parallel Passage. Livy xxi. 22, and cf. Polybius iii. 47.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
From the Pyrenees to the Rhone.
Passage of the Elephants.
Elephantorum traiciendorum varia consilia fuisse credo, certe variat memoria actae rei. . . . Ceterum magis constat ratibus traiectos esse elephantos. Ratem unam ducentos longam pedes quinquaginta latam a terra in amnem porrexerunt, quam, ne 5 secunda aqua deferretur, pluribus validis retinaculis parte superiore ripae religatam pontis in modum humo iniecta constraverunt, ut beluae audacter velut per solum ingrederentur. Altera ratis aeque lata, longa pedes centum, ad traiciendum flumen apta, 10 huic copulata est; tum elephanti per stabilem ratem tamquam viam praegredientibus feminis acti ubi in minorem applicatam transgressi sunt, extemplo resolutis, quibus leviter annexa erat, vinculis ab actuariis aliquot navibus ad alteram ripam pertrahitur. Ita 15 primis expositis alii deinde repetiti ac traiecti sunt. Nihil sane trepidabant, donec continenti velut ponte agerentur; primus erat pavor, cum soluta ab ceteris rate in altum raperentur. Ibi urgentes inter se cedentibus extremis ab aqua trepidationis aliquantum 20 edebant, donec quietem ipse timor circumspectantibus aquam fecisset. Excidere etiam saevientes quidam in flumen; sed pondere ipso stabilis deiectis rectoribus quaerendis pedetemptim vadis in terram evasere. 25
Livy, xxi. 28.
2 variat . . . rei = the accounts of what was done differ.—Dimsdale.
7 parte superiore . . . pontis = fastened to the upper part of the bank, i.e. to the bank at a point higher up stream.—D.
9 per solum = on firm ground.
14 ab actuariis = by some light craft, lit. ‘Easily moved’ (ago).
17-18 donec . . . agerentur = So long as they were being driven on what seemed a bridge connected with the land.—C. and B. Agebantur would be more usual, but agerentur may give the reason of nihil trepidabant. Cf. donec—fecisset ll. 21-22.
19 in altum = into mid stream, usu. of the Sea.—D.
inter se = one on another, alii alios.
24 quaerendis pedetemptim vadis = feeling their way into shallow water. pedetemptim = step by step, lit. ‘stretching out the feet’ (pes + tendo). Cf. paulatim, sensim.
Reference. Polybius, iii. 46. Both Polybius and Livy thought that elephants could not swim.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
From the Rhone to Italy.
Hannibal encourages his Soldiers.
Itaque Hannibal, postquam ipsi sententia stetit pergere ire atque Italiam petere, advocata contione varie militum versat animos castigando adhortandoque: mirari se, quinam pectora semper impavida repens terror invaserit. . . . Alpes quidem habitari, coli, 5 gignere atque alere animantes; pervias fauces esse exercitibus. Eos ipsos, quos cernant, legatos non pinnis sublime elatos Alpes transgressos. Ne maiores quidem eorum indigenas, sed advenas Italiae cultores has ipsas Alpes ingentibus saepe agminibus cum 10 liberis ac coniugibus migrantium modo tuto transmisisse. Militi quidem armato nihil secum praeter instrumenta belli portanti quid invium aut inexsuperabile esse? Saguntum ut caperetur, quid per octo menses periculi, quid laboris exhaustum esse! 15 Romam, caput orbis terrarum, petentibus quicquam adeo asperum atque arduum videri, quod inceptum moretur? Cepisse quondam Gallos ea, quae adiri posse Poenus desperet. Proinde aut cederent animo atque virtute genti per eos dies totiens ab se victae, 20 aut itineris finem sperent campum interiacentem Tiberi ac moenibus Romanis.
Livy, xxi. 30.
2-3 varie . . . versat = works on their minds by different methods, i.e. castigando adhortandoque.—Dimsdale.
4-5 repens terror. Livy says that H.’s soldiers dreaded the Romans (victorious in the 1st Punic War), but still more the exaggerated and unknown terrors of the Alps.
7 Eos ipsos legatos, i.e. of the Boii (Insubrian Gauls), long settled in Gallia Cisalpina (round Mediolanum = Milan).
9 advenas Italiae cultores = foreign settlers in Italy. advenas = adj. here.—D.
11 migrantium modo = as immigrants.
16 Romam caput orbis. A rhetorical exaggeration, for Rome was not yet mistress even of all Italy (e.g. the Boii not subdued until 191 B.C.).
18 Cepisse Gallos. The Gauls sacked Rome 390 B.C.
20 genti . . . victae, e.g. at the Passage of the Rhone.
21 campum, i.e. the Campus Martius, N.W. of Rome, where the Tiber makes a wide curve. For the thought cf. [p. 116], ll. 7, 8.
The Speeches of Livy. ‘He does not intend in them to reproduce the substance of words actually spoken, or even to imitate the tone of the time in which the speech is laid. He uses them as a vivid and dramatic method of portraying character and motive.’—Mackail.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
From the Rhone to Italy.
The Descent of the Alps.
Natura locus iam ante praeceps recenti lapsu terrae in pedum mille admodum altitudinem abruptus erat. . . . Tandem nequiquam iumentis atque hominibus fatigatis castra in iugo posita, aegerrime ad id ipsum loco purgato: tantum nivis fodiendum atque 5 egerendum fuit. Inde ad rupem muniendam, per quam unam via esse poterat, milites ducti, cum caedendum esset saxum, arboribus circa immanibus deiectis detruncatisque struem ingentem lignorum faciunt, eamque, cum et vis venti apta faciendo igni 10 coorta esset, succendunt ardentiaque saxa infuso aceto putrefaciunt. Ita torridam incendio rupem ferro pandunt, molliuntque anfractibus modicis clivos, ut non iumenta solum sed elephanti etiam deduci possent. Quadriduum circa rupem consumptum 15 iumentis prope fame absumptis; nuda enim fere cacumina sunt, et, si quid est pabuli, obruunt nives. Inferiora valles apricosque quosdam colles habent rivosque prope silvas et iam humano cultu digniora loca. Ibi iumenta in pabulum missa, et quies 20 muniendo fessis hominibus data. Triduo inde ad planum descensum iam et locis mollioribus et accolarum ingeniis.
Livy, xxi. 36, 37.
Context. At a short distance from the summit of the Pass (prob. the Little St. Bernard) Hannibal finds his passage barred by a break in the road, caused by a landslip or avalanche.
2-3 in pedum . . . abruptus erat. Polybius says that the precipice at the side of the road (leaving only a narrow ledge) extended for about 1000 ft. in length. Livy in mistake converts this into 1000 ft. in depth.
3-4 Tandem . . . fatigatis, i.e. after H.’s attempt to pass by a side-way over a glacier failed.
4 in iugo, i.e. on the higher level where the road was broken away.
6 ad rupem muniendam = to cut a way through the rock. Munire (cf. moenia) = lit. ‘to wall,’ ‘to build.’ So munire viam = to make a road. Hannibal widened the narrow ledge of road by making a sort of terrace.
9 detruncatis = trimmed, (lit. ‘lopped off’), i.e. cleared of branches.
11-12 infuso aceto. Limestone rock might be softened by vinegar, which the posca, the soldiers’ regular drink of vinegar and water, would supply. Polybius does not mention this.
13-14 molliuntque . . . clivos = relieve the steepness of the descent by gently-sloping zigzag paths. Anfractus, from ambi + frango.
References. Polybius, iii. 54-56; Ihne, i. 171-179.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
[A.] The Battle at the R. Trebia, 218 B.C.
Hannibal, cum ad Trebiam in conspectu haberet Semproni Longi consulis castra, medio amne interfluente, saevissima hieme Magonem et electos in insidiis posuit. Deinde Numidas equites ad eliciendam Semproni credulitatem adequitare vallo eius 5 iussit, quibus praeceperat, ut ad primum nostrorum incursum per nota refugerent vada. Hos consul et adortus temere et secutus ieiunum exercitum in maximo frigore transitu fluminis rigefecit: mox torpore et inedia adfectis Hannibal suum militem 10 opposuit, quem ad id ignibus oleoque et cibo foverat; nec defuit partibus Mago, quin terga hostium in hoc ordinatus caederet.
Frontinus, Strategemata, ii. 5. 23.
1 ad Trebiam, a small tributary S. of the Padus, which it joins 2 miles W. of Placentia (Piacenza).
2 castra. Ti. Sempronius Longus, with his army from Sicily, effected a junction with his colleague, Scipio, in his fortified camp on the W. or left bank of the Trebia.
8-9 ieiunum . . . rigefecit, i.e. Sempronius made stiff (rigefecit) with wading breast-high across the icy river his men faint with hunger (ieiunum).
11 oleoque, i.e. ut mollirent artus = to make their limbs supple.
12-13 nec defuit . . . caederet. The Romans kept their ground with the utmost courage till Mago burst out from his ambush and attacked them in rear.
[B.] The River bars the Retreat.
570
Et iam, dispersis Romana per agmina signis,
Palantes agit, ad ripas, miserabile! Poenus
Impellens trepidos, fluvioque immergere certat.
Tum Trebia infausto nova proelia gurgite fessis
Incohat, ac precibus Iunonis suscitat undas.
Haurit subsidens fugientum corpora tellus,
Infidaque soli frustrata voragine sorbet.
Nec niti lentoque datur convellere limo
Mersa pedum penitus vestigia: labe tenaci
Haerent devincti gressus, resolutaque ripa
Implicat aut caeca prosternit fraude paludis.
Silius Italicus, iv. 570-580.
574 precibus . . . undas. The poet, in his imitation of Vergil, makes Juno the devoted ally of Hannibal.
576 soli frustrata = prevented from reaching firm ground.
577 lento = sticky.
579 resoluta = crumbling.
References. Livy, xxi. 52-56; Ihne, ii. 187-191.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C. (1)
Flaminius cum pridie solis occasu ad lacum pervenisset, inexplorato postero die vixdum satis certa luce angustiis superatis, postquam in patentiorem campum pandi agmen coepit, id tantum hostium, quod ex adverso erat, conspexit; ab tergo ac super 5 caput haud* detectae insidiae. Poenus ubi, id quod petierat, clausum lacu ac montibus et circumfusum suis copiis habuit hostem, signum omnibus dat simul invadendi. Qui ubi, qua cuique proximum fuit, decucurrerunt, eo magis Romanis subita atque improvisa 10 res fuit, quod orta ex lacu nebula campo quam montibus densior sederat, agminaque hostium ex pluribus collibus ipsa inter se satis conspecta eoque magis pariter decucurrerant. Romanus clamore prius undique orto, quam satis cerneret, se circumventum 15 esse sensit, et ante in frontem lateraque pugnari coeptum est, quam satis instrueretur acies aut expediri arma stringique gladii possent. Consul perculsis omnibus ipse satis, ut† in re trepida, impavidus turbatos ordines, vertente se quoque ad dissonos 20 clamores, instruit, ut tempus locusque patitur, et, quacunque adire audirique potest, adhortatur ac stare ac pugnare iubet. 25
Livy, xxii. 4, 5.
* Var. lect. decepere.
† For this qualifying use of ut cf. [p. 42, iii. (b)] and [p. 83 line 1].
1 Flaminius (Gaius), the chief of the popular party at Rome. Consul 223 B.C., conquered the Insubrian Gauls, Censor 220 B.C. Connected Picenum with Rome by the Via Flaminia. Consul (a second time) 217 B.C., defeated and killed at Trasimene.
2 inexplorato = without reconnoitring. ‘This word expresses the whole blame attaching to Flaminius, and it is great.’—Dimsdale.
4 pandi (= se pandere) = to deploy.
13 ipsa . . . conspecta = were sufficiently visible to each other.
15 prius quam satis cerneret = before he could clearly distinguish anything.—D.
19 ut in re trepida = considering the confusion of the moment.—D.
The Scene of the Battle. At the N.W. end of the Lake the mountains of Cortona come right down to the lake, but a little further E. the pass expands and forms between the mountains and the lake a narrow plain from ½ to 1½ miles in width and about 4 miles in length. At the E. end of the plain the mountains again close down upon the lake. Here Hannibal encamped with his Africans and Spaniards; posted his light-armed troops behind the crests of the hills which bounded the plain on the N., and his cavalry at the entrance to the pass on the W. to cut off the Roman retreat.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C. (2)
Ceterum prae strepitu ac tumultu nec consilium nec imperium accipi poterat, tantumque aberat, ut sua signa atque ordines et locum noscerent, ut vix ad arma capienda aptandaque pugnae competeret animus, opprimerenturque quidam onerati magis iis 5 quam tecti. Et erat in tanta caligine maior usus aurium quam oculorum. Ad gemitus vulneratorum ictusque corporum aut armorum et mixtos strepentium* paventiumque clamores circumferebant ora oculosque. Alii fugientes pugnantium globo illati 10 haerebant; alios redeuntes in pugnam avertebat fugientium agmen. Deinde, ubi in omnes partes nequiquam impetus capti, et ab lateribus montes ac lacus, a fronte et ab tergo hostium acies claudebant, apparuitque nullam nisi in dextera ferroque salutis 15 spem esse, tum sibi quisque dux adhortatorque factus ad rem gerendam et nova de integro exorta pugna est, non illa ordinata per principes hastatosque ac triarios, nec ut pro signis antesignani, post signa alia pugnaret acies; fors conglobabat et animus suus 20 cuique ante aut post pugnandi ordinem dabat; tantusque fuit ardor animorum, adeo intentus pugnae animus, ut eum motum terrae, qui multarum urbium Italiae magnas partes prostravit, nemo pugnantium senserit. 25
Livy, xxii. 5.
* Var. lect. terrentium = of those causing fear.
4 ad arma capienda aptandaque = to seize and put on for the battle their arms.—Dimsdale.
5 onerati: i.e. most were cut down in their full marching equipment.
8-9 mixtos . . . clamores = the mingled shouts of noisy triumph (strepentium) or dismay.
10 pugnantium . . . haerebant = rushed upon a knot (globo) of combatants, and became entangled with it.—Jebb.
14 a fronte, i.e. by Hannibal’s African and Spanish infantry.
ab tergo, i.e. by Hannibal’s cavalry and the Gauls.
18-19 non illa . . . triarios = not in that well-known (illa) mode of fighting (sc. pugna) arranged according to. . . . Livy refers to the old mode of formation (said to have been introduced by Camillus) of i. hastati, of young men, ii. principes, of men at their prime, iii. triarii, of middle-aged men.
References: Polybius, iii. 82-84; Ihne, Hist. vol, i. pp. 204-10.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C. (3)
The Death of Flaminius.
Dumque ea commemorat densosque obit obvius hostes,
Advolat ora ferus mentemque Ducarius. Acri
Nomen erat gentile viro, fusisque catervis
Boiorum quondam patriis, antiqua gerebat
Vulnera barbaricae mentis, noscensque superbi
Victoris vultus, ‘Tune, inquit, maximus ille
Boiorum terror? libet hoc cognoscere telo,
Corporis an tanti manet de vulnere sanguis.
Nec vos poeniteat, populares, fortibus umbris
Hoc mactare caput: nostros hic curribus egit
Insistens victos alta ad Capitolia patres.
Ultrix hora vocat.’ Pariter tunc undique fusis
Obruitur telis, nimboque mente per auras
Contectus nulli dextra iactare reliquit
Flaminium cecidisse sua. Nec pugna perempto
Ulterior ductore fuit; namque agmine denso
Primores iuvenum, laeva ob discrimina Martis
Infensi superis dextrisque, et cernere Poenum
Victorem plus morte rati, super ocius omnes
Membra ducis stratosque artus certamine magno
Telaque corporaque et non fausto Marte cruentas
Iniecere manus. Sic densi caedis acervo
Ceu tumulo, texere virum.
Silius Italicus, v. 644-666.
644 Dum . . . hostes, i.e. after Flaminius’ vain attempt to rally and form his men, and his consequent resolve to atone for his fault (inexplorato* angustiis superatis) with his life.
645 Ducarius—Livy, ‘an Insubrian (Lombard) trooper.’
651 mānet = will flow. Cf. emanate.
652 populares = fellow-countrymen, but of Romans usu. civis.
658-666 Livy says more simply ‘He (Ducarius) was trying to despoil the corpse, when some veterans screened it with their shields.’
660 laeva = unfavourable, lit. ‘on the left side.’ Cf. sinister.
* See [p. 124], l. 2, note.
Parallel Passages.—Livy, xxii. 6; Polyb. iii. 84.
Character of Flaminius. ‘The party feelings which have so coloured the language of the ancient writers (e.g. Livy, Polybius) respecting him need not be shared by a modern historian. Flaminius was indeed an unequal antagonist to Hannibal; but, in his previous life, as Consul and as Censor, he had served his country well; and if the defile of Trasimene witnessed his rashness, it also contains his honourable grave.’ Arnold, Hist. Rome, iii. 110.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Quintus Fabus Maximus Cunctator.
Ego Q. Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, senem adulescens ita dilexi, ut aequalem. Erat enim in illo viro comitate condita gravitas, nec senectus mores mutaverat. . . . Hic et bella gerebat ut adulescens, cum plane grandis esset, et Hannibalem 5 iuveniliter exsultantem patientia sua molliebat; de quo praeclare familiaris noster Ennius:
Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem;
Noenum rumores ponebat ante salutem;
Ergo plusque magisque viri nunc gloria claret.
Nec vero in armis praestantior quam in toga; qui consul iterum, Sp. Carvilio collega quiescente, C. Flaminio tribuno plebis, quoad potuit, restitit agrum Picentem et Gallicum viritim contra senatus auctoritatem dividenti. . . . Multa in eo viro praeclara 15 cognovi, sed nihil admirabilius quam quo modo ille mortem fili tulit, clari viri et consularis. Est in manibus laudatio, quam eum legimus, quem philosophum non contemnimus? Nec vero ille in luce modo atque in oculis civium magnus, sed intus 20 domique praestantior.
Cicero, De Senectute, §§ 10-12.
1 Ego, i.e. M. Porcius Cato, the famous Censor of 184 B.C.
eum qui Tarentum recepit. Tarentum was betrayed to Hannibal 212 B.C. and recovered by Fabius 209 B.C.
2-3 Erat . . . gravitas = that hero possessed dignity tempered by courtesy.—J. S. R. condita (condio) = lit. seasoned.
5 grandis, sc. natu. He was consul for a first time in 233 B.C.
6 iuveniliter. Hannibal was 29 when he crossed the Alps.
exsultantem = wildly roaming, of a horse galloping at will.
7 noster Ennius, circ. 239-169 B.C., famous espec. for his Annales in Hexameter verse. He was the first Latin writer to use this metre.
9 Noenum (ne + oinum = not one thing) = non. Cf. nihil = ne + hilum = not a whit, nothing.
12-14 Flaminius, when tribune 232 B.C., by a vote of the Comitia Tributa (i.e. by a plebiscitum) and against the expressed wish of the Senate (contra senatus auctoritatem) carried an agrarian law for the division of public land in Picenum amongst Roman citizens.
18 laudatio, sc. funebris, the funeral speech.
19-20 in luce . . . civium = in public and under the gaze of his fellow-countrymen.—J. S. R.
References. Polybius, iii. 89, 90; Livy, xxii. 12; Plutarch, Fabius, vi.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Fabius and his Master of the Horse, 217 B.C.
Ita per variam fortunam diei maiore parte exacta cum in castra reditum esset, Minucius convocatis militibus ‘Saepe ego’ inquit ‘audivi, milites, eum primum esse virum, qui ipse consulat, quid in rem sit, secundum eum, qui bene monenti oboediat; qui 5 nec ipse consulere nec alteri parere sciat, eum extremi ingenii esse. Nobis quoniam prima animi ingeniique negata sors est, secundam ac mediam teneamus et, dum imperare discimus, parere prudenti in animum inducamus. Castra cum Fabio iungamus; ad praetorium 10 eius signa cum tulerimus, ubi ego eum parentem appellavero, quod beneficio erga nos ac maiestate eius dignum est, vos, milites, eos, quorum vos modo arma ac dexterae texerunt, patronos salutabitis, et, si nihil aliud, gratorum certe nobis 15 animorum gloriam dies hic dederit.’ Signo dato conclamatur inde, ut colligantur vasa. Profecti et agmine incedentes ad dictatoris castra in admirationem et ipsum et omnes, qui circa erant, converterunt. 20
Livy, xxii. 29, 30.
Context. Fabius’ policy of ‘masterly inactivity’ had become so unpopular at Rome that the command of the army was divided between Fabius and Minucius, who risked a battle, and was only saved from a destruction as complete as that of the Trebia by the timely aid of Fabius. Minucius publicly and fully atones for his rashness.
4 consulat = can give counsel—so consulere l. 6.
6-7 extremi ingenii = has the meanest capacity. gen. of quality.
7-8 prima . . . sors est = the highest rank in the scale of spirit and intellect.—Dimsdale.
14 patronos = as the authors of your freedom. Patronus = legal title used by a freed slave (libertus) of his former master. The soldiers of Minucius are to think of themselves as liberti, owing their freedom to those of Fabius, who are thus their patroni.
17 ut colligantur vasa, i.e. impedimenta. Cf. signa movere.
Fabius Cunctator. ‘Fabius had to create a new army, to accustom it to war, and to inspire it with courage. He did this skilfully and persistently, and thus he rendered the most essential service that any general could at that time render to the State. It was probably at this time that the Senate voted him a crown of grass (corona graminea), the highest distinction which was awarded to a general who had saved a besieged town.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 218 B.C. (1)
The Destruction of the Roman Infantry.
Sub equestris finem certaminis coorta est peditum pugna, primo et viribus et animis par, dum constabant ordines Gallis Hispanisque; tandem Romani, diu ac saepe conisi, obliqua fronte acieque densa impulere hostium cuneum nimis tenuem eoque parum 5 validum a cetera prominentem acie. Impulsis deinde ac trepide referentibus pedem institere ac tenore uno per praeceps pavore fugientium agmen in mediam primum aciem illati, postremo nullo resistente ad subsidia Afrorum pervenerunt, qui utrimque reductis 10 alis constiterant media, qua Galli Hispanique steterant, aliquantum prominente acie. Qui cuneus ut pulsus aequavit frontem primum, dein cedendo etiam sinum in medio dedit, Afri circa iam cornua fecerant irruentibusque incaute in medium Romanis circumdedere 15 alas; mox cornua extendendo clausere et ab tergo hostis. Hinc Romani, defuncti nequiquam proelio uno, omissis Gallis Hispanisque, quorum terga ceciderant, adversus Afros integram pugnam ineunt non tantum eo iniquam, quod inclusi adversus 20 circumfusos, sed etiam quod fessi cum recentibus ac vegetis pugnabant.
Livy, xxii. 47.
1 Sub . . . certaminis, i.e. at the close of (sub) the first stage in the battle, in which the Roman cavalry were defeated.
2-3 constabant . . . Hispanisque. These formed Hannibal’s centre, the convex of his semicircular formation of his infantry, with the African troops on the horns of the semicircle to the right and left, but at some distance behind.
4 obliqua fronte, perh. = concave, so as to surround the projecting part of the enemy’s line (a cetera prominentem acie).
5 cuneum: here = the convex formation of the Gauls and Spaniards.
8-9 in mediam aciem = the centre of the line, i.e. of the Gauls and Spaniards, who were intended to engage with the Romans first.
10 subsidia = reserves, i.e. the Africans, on the right and left.
14-16 Afri circa . . . alas. Hannibal’s formation is now reversed.* The horns (cornua) of the semicircle (the Africans) are now advanced, and outflanked (circumdedere alas) the Romans, who rushed heedlessly into the intervening space (in medium, i.e. the concave part of H.’s line formed by the retirement of the Gauls and Spaniards).
21-22 recentibus ac vegetis = fresh in body and mind.
* i.e. the Africans now formed the horns of a crescent in relation to their centre, while it formed the concave part of the crescent.—D.
Results of the Battle. Hannibal becomes master of Magna Graecia, and the Romans lose (including 23,000 taken prisoners) about 70,000 men.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (2)
‘Paulus animae magnae prodigus.’
Cn. Lentulus tribunus militum cum praetervehens equo sedentem in saxo cruore oppletum consulem vidisset, ‘L. Aemili’ inquit, ‘quem unum insontem culpae cladis hodiernae dei respicere debent, cape hunc equum, dum et tibi virium aliquid superest, 5 et comes ego te tollere possum ac protegere. Ne funestam hanc pugnam morte consulis feceris; etiam sine hoc lacrimarum satis luctusque est.’ Ad ea consul: ‘Tu quidem, Cn. Corneli, macte virtute esto; sed cave frustra miserando exiguum tempus e 10 manibus hostium evadendi absumas. Abi, nuntia publice patribus, urbem Romanam muniant ac, priusquam victor hostis advenit, praesidiis firment; privatim Q. Fabio L. Aemilium praeceptorum eius memorem et vixisse adhuc et mori. Memet in hac 15 strage militum meorum patere exspirare, ne aut reus iterum e consulatu sim aut accusator oollegae existam, ut alieno crimine innocentiam meam protegam.’ Haec eos agentes prius turba fugientium civium, deinde hostes oppressere; consulem ignorantes, 20 quis esset, obruere telis, Lentulum inter tumultum arripuit equus. Tum undique effuse fugiunt.
Livy, xxii. 49.
1 praetervehens equo = riding by. praetervehor used here as a deponent.—Dimsdale.
2 oppletum (= perfusum) = covered (lit. filled up), or drenched.
4 respicere = to look on with favour.—D.
9 macte virtute esto = lit. go on and prosper in your courage.
mactus = i. magis + auctus = increased, glorified, or more prob. ii. = old partic. of obsolete mago (= augeo), from √μακ, e.g. in μάκ-αρ. Vocative used as nominative.
14 praeceptorum. His self-sacrifice was not in vain. The tactics of Fabius were again adopted after his death.
15 et vixisse adhuc et mori = died as he had ever lived.—D.
17 reus iterum e consulatu = a second time to stand on my defence in consequence of my consulship, i.e. on a charge that grew out of his acts as Consul (219 B.C.) with M. Livius Salinator of misappropriation of the spoils at the close of the Illyrian War.
18-19 ut . . . protegam. The two Consuls had the chief command of the army on alternate days. Varro was in command at Cannae.
‘The overthrow of Cannae was so complete that every other nation but the Romans would have given up the idea of further resistance.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (3)
[A.] Maharbal urges Hannibal to march on Rome.
Hannibali victori cum ceteri circumfusi gratularentur suaderentque, ut tanto perfunctus bello diei quod reliquum esset noctisque insequentis quietem et ipse sibi sumeret et fessis daret militibus, Maharbal praefectus equitum, minime cessandum ratus, ‘Immo 5 ut, quid hac pugna sit actum, scias, die quinto’ inquit ‘victor in Capitolio epulaberis. Sequere: cum equite, ut prius venisse quam venturum sciant, praecedam.’ Hannibali nimis laeta res est visa maiorque, quam ut eam statim capere animo posset. Itaque voluntatem 10 se laudare Maharbalis ait; ad consilium pensandum temporis opus esse. Tum Maharbal: ‘Non omnia nimirum eidem di dedere; vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis.’ Mora eius diei satis creditur saluti fuisse urbi atque imperio. 15
Livy, xxii. 51.
2-4 diei . . . sumeret = he should take what remained of that day and the following night for rest.—Church and Brodribb.
8 venisse, sc. te, suggested by sequere.—Dimsdale.
9 res = the idea, i.e. of such a rapid termination to the war.—D.
Hannibal was too far off (11 days’ march) to take Rome by storm. Its population contained as many soldiers as his army, and the city was strongly fortified by its situation and by art.
[B.] Scipio forbids the Nobles to abandon Italy.
Post Cannensem cladem perculsis ita Romanorum animis, ut pars magna reliquiarum nobilissimis auctoribus deserendae Italiae iniret consilium, P. Scipio adulescens admodum impetu facto, in eo ipso in quo talia agitabantur coetu pronuntiavit manu se 20 sua interfecturum, nisi qui iurasset non esse sibi mentem destituendae rei publicae: cumque ipse se primus religione tali obligasset, stricto gladio mortem uni ex proximis minatus, nisi acciperet sacramentum, illum metu, ceteros etiam exemplo coegit ad iurandum. 25
Frontinus, Strat. iv. 7. 39.
18 P. Scipio adulescens, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Africanns Maior, fatalis dux huiusce belli, the predestined champion in this war.
Parallel Passage. Livy, xxii. 53, and cf. Livy, v. 50-55, where Camillus dissuades the commons from migrating to Veii.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
[A.] Rome’s Heroes.
Regulum et Scauros animaeque magnae
Prodigum Paulum superante Poeno
Gratus insigni referam Camena
Fabriciumque.
Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis
Utilem bello tulit et Camillum
Saeva paupertas et avitus apto
Cum lare fundus.
Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo
Fama Marcelli; micat inter omnes
Iulium sidus velut inter ignes
Luna minores.
Horace, Odes, I. xii. 37-48.
37 Scauros* (= Scaurum) = such men as Scaurus. Censor, 100 B.C.
40 Fabricium, who despised the bribes of Pyrrhus. Censor 275 B.C. See [p. 101], Fabricius the Just.
43-44 apto cum lare = with homestead to match.—Gow.
* Cf. in French, Les Vergiles.
[B.] The Dream of Propertius.
Visus eram molli recubans Heliconis in umbra,
Bellerophontei qua fluit umor equi,
Reges, Alba, tuos et regum facta tuorum,
Tantum operis, nervis hiscere posse meis;
Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora,
Unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit,
Et cecini Curios fratres et Horatia pila,
Regiaque Aemilia vecta tropaea rate,
Victricesque moras Fabii pugnamque sinistram
Cannensem et versos ad pia vota deos,
Hannibalemque Lares Romana sede fugantes,
Anseris et tutum voce fuisse Iovem.
Propertius, III. (IV.) iii. (ii.) 1-12.
Subject:—Propertius had tremblingly touched the mighty fount with his lips (l. 5): he dreamed that he essayed, in consequence, to follow the example of Ennius.
2 i.e. the Spring of Pirene near Corinth, where Pegasus was caught by Bellerophon. Its waters possessed inspiring properties.
4 nervis . . . meis = that I had strength to gasp forth.—Ramsay.
7 Curios = Curiatios.
Horatia pila: see [pp. 67-68].
8 Aemilia, i.e. of L. Aemilius Paullus (son of the hero of Cannae), victor at Pydna 168 B.C. over Perseus of Macedon.
10 versos . . . deos, i.e. the solemn ordinances decreed by Fabius, Dictator after Trasimene, to which the gods turned a ready ear (versos).
12 fuisse, dependent on cecini l. 7.
Iovem, i.e. Iovis Capitolini templum. See [p. 84].
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C. (1)
[A.] Capua aspires to rival Rome.
Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas,
Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit.
Quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi,
Minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae manus,
Aemula nec virtus Capuae nec Spartacus acer
Novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox,
Nec fera caerulea domuit Germania pube
Parentibusque abominatus Hannibal:
Impia perdemus devoti sanguinis aetas,
Ferisque rursus occupabitur solum.
Horace, Epod. xvi. 1-10.
5 Aemula virtus Capuae. In 216 B.C. Capua was, after Rome, the richest and most powerful city in Italy. As the result of Cannae she aspired to dominion over Italy.
Spartacus acer, leader of the Servile War, 73-71 B.C.
6 novis rebus infidelis = faithless to revolution, because they assisted in betraying Catiline’s plot 63 B.C.—Wickham.
9 impia . . . aetas = we an impious generation whose blood is foredoomed (i.e. there is a curse on us) shall destroy (Rome).
[B.] Decius Magius defies Hannibal.
Egressus curia Hannibal in templo magistratuum consedit, comprehendique Decium Magium atque ante pedes destitutum causam dicere iussit. Qui cum manente ferocia animi negaret lege foederis id cogi posse, tum iniectae catenae, ducique ante lictorem 15 in castra est iussus. Quoad capite aperto est ductus, contionabundus incessit ad circumfusam undique multitudinem vociferans: ‘Habetis libertatem, Campani, quam petistis: foro medio, luce clara, videntibus vobis nulli Campanorum secundus vinctus ad mortem 20 rapior. Quid violentius capta Capua fieret? Ite obviam Hannibali, exornate urbem diemque adventus eius consecrate, ut hunc triumphum de cive vestro spectetis.’
Livy, xxiii. 10.
Context. After the Revolt of Capua, when Hannibal made a public entry into the city, the whole population, with the exception of Decius Magius and his son, poured out to meet him.
11 in templo magistratuum = on the magistrates’ bench, (or tribunal).
12 Decium Magium, one of the few Capuan nobles faithful to Rome.
14-15 negaret . . . posse = urged that by the terms of the treaty (i.e. between the Capuans and H.) this could not be insisted on.—Church and Brodribb.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C. (2)
[A.] ‘Capua,’ it is said, ‘became Hannibal’s Cannae.’
Cum victoria Hannibal posset uti, frui maluit relictaque Roma Campaniam Tarentumque peragrare, ubi mox et ipse et exercitus ardor elanguit adeo ut vere dictum sit Capuam Hannibali Cannas fuisse. Si quidem invictum Alpibus, indomitum armis Campani—quis 5 crederet?—soles et tepentes fontibus Baiae subegerunt.
Florus, II. vi. 21-22.
2 Campaniam Tarentumque, once the two most fertile districts in Italy.
4 Capuam . . . fuisse. Ihne says: ‘Whatever may have been the pleasures and indulgences of Hannibal’s troops in Capua, their military qualities cannot have suffered by them, as the subsequent history of the war sufficiently demonstrates.’
7-8 tepentes fontibus Baiae, on a small bay west of Naples and opposite Puteoli, abounded in warm mineral springs.
[B.] The Punishment of Rebel Capua, 211 B.C.
Ad septuaginta principes senatus interfecti, trecenti ferme nobiles Campani in carcerem conditi; alii per sociorum Latini nominis urbes in custodias 10 dati variis casibus interierunt; multitudo alia civium Campanorum venum data. De urbe agroque reliqua consultatio fuit, quibusdam delendam censentibus urbem praevalidam, propinquam, inimicam. Ceterum praesens utilitas vicit; nam propter agrum, quem 15 omni fertilitate terrae satis constabat primum in Italia esse, urbs servata est, ut esset aliqua aratorum sedes. Urbi frequentandae multitudo incolarum libertinorumque et institorum opificumque retenta; ager omnis et tecta publica populi Romani facta. 20
Livy, xxvi. 16.
10 sociorum Latini nominis = sociorum ac Latini nominis, which includes all the Italian allies. ‘The Nomen Latinum were the members of the old Latin league whose rights were reduced in 338 B.C. after the Latin War.’—Rawlins.
13 delendam. Cf. Cato’s Delenda est Carthago.
15-17 agrum . . . in Italia esse. Cf. Verg. Georg. ii. 224-5: ‘Such is the tilth of wealthy Capua and the coast that borders the Vesuvian ridge.’—Mackail.
18 frequentandae = for the purpose of peopling.
19 institorum = pedlars or dealers. Cf. our ‘commercial travellers.’
20 publica . . . facta = confiscated. ‘This ager publicus was leased by the censors to farmers (aratores) who paid rent (vectigal) for it.’—R.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Marcellus at Nola, 216 B.C.
Ad tres portas in hostes versas Marcellus tripertito exercitum instruxit. . . . Ita instructi intra portas stabant. Hannibali sub signis, id quod per aliquot dies fecerat, ad multum diei in acie stanti primo miraculo esse, quod nec exercitus Romanus 5 porta egrederetur nec armatus quisquam in muris essent. Ratus deinde, prodita colloquia esse, metuque resides factos, partem militum in castra remittit iussos propere apparatum omnem oppugnandae urbis in primam aciem afferre, satis fidens, si cunctantibus 10 instaret, tumultum aliquem in urbe plebem moturam. Dum in sua quisque ministeria discursu trepidat ad prima signa succeditque ad muros acies, patefacta repente porta Marcellus signa canere clamoremque tolli ac pedites primum, deinde equites, quanto 15 maximo possent impetu, in hostem erumpere iubet. Satis terroris tumultusque in aciem mediam intulerant, cum duabus circa portis P. Valerius Flaccus et C. Aurelius in cornua hostium erupere. . . . Ingens victoria eo die res ac nescio an maxima illo bello gesta 20 est; non vinci enim ab Hannibale tunc diffcilius fuit quam postea vincere.
Livy, xxiii. 16.
Context. The plebs in Nola (as in Capua) was in favour of joining Hannibal, and it was with difficulty that the nobles (who here, as elsewhere, favoured Rome) delayed the decision, thus gaining time to inform Marcellus, who was then stationed at Casilinum, of the danger of a revolt. Marcellus immediately hastened to Nola, and occupied the town with a strong garrison.
3-5 Hannibali . . . primo miraculo esse = Hannibal, who . . . had his troops under arms till a late hour, was first of all astonished that.—Church and Brodribb.
7 colloquia esse, i.e. his communications (colloquia) with the Carthaginian party in Nola.
8 resĭdes = inactive, lit. that remains sitting (re + sedeo).
10 si cunctantibus instaret = if he met hesitation with prompt action.—Church and Brodribb. Lit. if he pressed upon those hesitating.
12 in sua . . . ministeria = to their several posts.
19-21 Ingens . . . gesta est = a great victory, the greatest, perhaps throughout the war, was achieved that day.
Nola, an important town in Campania, S.E. of Capua. It remained faithful to the Romans, even after Cannae, when the other Campanian towns revolted to Hannibal.
Marcellus at Nola. ‘It was the merit of Marcellus that he saved Nola from being taken.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Cicero’s Description of Syracuse.
Urbem Syracusas maximam esse Graecarum urbium pulcherrimamque omnium saepe audistis, Est, indices, ita, ut dicitur: nam et situ est cum munito, tum ex omni aditu vel terra vel mari praeclaro ad aspectum: et portus habet prope in aedificatione 5 aspectuque urbis inclusos: qui cum diversos inter se aditus habeant, in exitu coniunguntur et confluunt. Eorum coniunctione pars oppidi, quae appellatur Insula, mari disiuncta angusto, ponte rursum adiungitur et continetur. Ea tanta est urbs, ut ex 10 quattuor urbibus maximis constare dicatur: quarum una est ea, quam dixi, Insula: quae duobus portubus cincta, in utriusque portus ostium aditumque proiecta est: in qua domus est, quae Hieronis regis fuit, qua praetores uti solent. Altera autem est urbs 15 Syracusis, cui nomen Achradina est: in qua forum maximum, pulcherrimae porticus, ornatissimum prytaneum, amplissima est curia, templumque egregium Iovis Olympii. Tertia est urbs, quae, quod in ea parte Fortunae fanum antiquum fuit, 20 Tycha nominata est, in qua et gymnasium amplissimum est et complures aedes sacrae: coliturque ea pars et habitatur frequentissime. Quarta autem est urbs, quae quia postrema coaedificata est, Neapolis nominatur: quam ad summam theatrum est maximum. 25
Cicero, In Verrem, ii. 4. 117-119.
5-6 prope . . . inclusos, a special feature of Syracuse, because many ancient cities were built at some distance from the sea, with a harbour detached from them (e.g. Ostia, the port of Rome), though sometimes joined by long walls, as at Athens.
7 in exitu = at their outlet, i.e. the narrow channel between Ortygia (= Insula) and the mainland which connected the two harbours.
9 disiuncta = separated from the rest (dis—).
12 Insula, i.e. Ortygia, the only part now inhabited.
14 Hieronis regis, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C., distinguished by his military ability and the wise policy of his reign. From 263 B.C. till his death, the faithful friend and ally of Rome.
16 Achradina, the mainland N. of Ortygia. At the time of the famous siege of Syracuse by the Athenians, 415-413 B.C., the city consisted only of Ortygia and Achradina.
18 prytaneum = town-hall (πρυτανεῖον = the presidents’ hall).
25 theatrum est maximum, capable of holding 25,000 people. Of all the buildings described by Cicero as existing in Neapolis, the Theatre alone remains.
Reference. Freeman’s History of Sicily.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Engineering Skill of Archimedes.
Adversus hunc navalem apparatum Archimedes variae magnitudinis tormenta in muria disposuit. In eas, quae procul erant, naves saxa ingenti pondere emittebat, propiores levioribus eoque magis crebris petebat telis; postremo, ut sui vulnere intacti tela 5 in hostem ingererent, murum ab imo ad summum crebris cubitalibus fere cavis aperuit, per quae cava pars sagittis pars scorpionibus modicis ex occulto petebant hostem. Quae propius quaedam subibant naves, quo interiores ictibus tormentorum essent, in 10 eas tollenone super murum eminente ferrea manus, firmae catenae illigata, cum iniecta prorae esset gravique libramento plumbi recelleret ad solum, suspensa prora navem in puppim statuebat; dein remissa subito velut ex muro cadentem navem cum 15 ingenti trepidatione nautarum ita undae affligebat, ut, etiam si recta reciderat, aliquantum aquae acciperet, Ita maritima oppugnatio est elusa omnisque spes eo versa, ut totis viribus terra aggrederentur. Sed ea quoque pars eodem omni apparatu tormehtorum instructa 20 erat Hieronis impensis curaque per multos annos, Archimedis unica arte.
Livy, xxiv, 34.
1 adversus . . . apparatum, i.e. to oppose the elaborate naval attack by Marcellus on the seaward defences of Achradina.
7 cubitalibus fere cavis = with holes (fr. cavum = noun) about 1½ feet square, cubitalibus (cubitum) = a cubit long. Polybius has a palm long, about 3 inches. This is more probable.
8 scorpionibus = crossbows or manuballistae.
10 quo interiores . . . essent = so as to be too close in to be hit by (intertores ictibus) the engines.
10-12 in eas (sc. proras) iniecta = on their bows was dropped . . .
11 tollenone = from a swing beam, supported at the centre of gravity by a strong fixed fulcrum.
12-13 cum (ferrea manus) gravique . . . ad solum = lit. when (the grappling-iron) swung back (recelleret) to the ground by a heavyweight of lead. ‘This is incorrect; it was not the grappling-iron, but the other (inland) end of the lever which was brought down to the ground.’—Rawlins.
15 remissa (sc. ferrea manus) = the grappling-hook was (then) suddenly let go.
16 ita undae affligebat = was dashed with such violence on the disturbed water (undae).
Cause of the War. Soon after the death of Hiero in 216 B.C., his whole family was murdered, and the supreme power in Syracuse fell into the hands of the two brothers, Hippocrates and Epicydes, Hannibal’s agents.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Marcellus laments over Syracuse.
Marcellus ut moenia ingressus ex superioribus locis urbem omnium ferme ilia tempestate pulcherrimam subiectam oculis vidit, illacrimasse dicitur partim gaudio tantae perpetratae rei, partim vetusta gloria urbis. Atheniensium classes demersae et duo 5 ingentes exercitus cum duobus clarissimis ducibus deleti occurrebant et tot bella cum Carthaginiensibus tanto cum discrimine gesta>, tot tam opulenti tyranni regesque, praeter ceteros Hiero cum recentissimae memoriae rex, tum ante omnia, quae virtus ei fortunaque 10 sua dederat, beneficiis in populum Romanum insignis. Ea cum universa occurrerent animo subiretque cogitatio, iam illa momento horae arsura omnia et ad cineres reditura, priusquam signa Achradinam admoveret, praemittit Syracusanos, 15 qui intra praesidia Romana fuerant, ut alloquio leni impellerent hostes ad dedendam urbem. . . . Achradina diripienda militi data est. Cum multa irae, multa avaritiae foeda exempla ederentur, Archimeden memoriae proditum est in tanto tumultu, quantum 20 pavor captae urbis in discursu diripientium militum ciere poterat, intentum formis, quas in pulvere descripserat, ab ignaro milite, quis esset, interfectum; aegre id Marcellum tulisse sepulturaeque curam habitam, et propinquis etiam inquisitis honori praesidioque 25 nomen ac memoriam eius fuisse.
Livy, xxv. 24, 31.
1-2 ex superioribus locis, i.e. from the heights of Epipolae, which he had taken by a night attack, when the Syracusans were celebrating a three days’ festival of Artemis.
6 ducibus, e.g. Lamachus, Eurymedon, Demosthenes.
7-8 tot bella . . . gesta, e.g. at Himera, 480 B.C., on the same day as Salamis.
8-9 tot tam . . . regesque, e.g. Gelo, 485 B.C.; Dionysius the Elder, 406 B.C.; Hiero II., the friend and ally of Rome, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C.
8 tyranni, i.e. absolute rulers, despots, with reference rather to the irregular way in which the power was gained, than the way in which it was exercised.
16 qui . . . fuerant, i.e. Syracusan deserters who kept up communication with the republican (pro-Roman) party in Syracuse.
22 formis = diagrams.
24 sepulturae. Cf. Demonstration VI, page 54.
The Treatment of Syracuse. It would have been the undying glory of Marcellus if, on obtaining possession, he had shielded the unhappy city from further miseries. The art-treasures of Syracuse were sent to Rome, a precedent afterwards followed.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
The Death of Marcellus, 208 B.C.
Exiguum campi ante castra erat; inde in collem aperta undique et conspecta ferebat via. Numidis speculator, nequaquam in spem tantae rei positus, sed si quos vagos pabuli aut lignorum causa longius a castris progressos possent excipere, signum dat, ut 5 pariter ab suis quisque latebris exorerentur. Non ante apparuere, quibus obviis ab iugo ipso consurgendum erat, quam circumiere, qui ab tergo intercluderent viam. Tum undique omnes exorti et clamore sublato impetum fecere. Cum in ea valle 10 consules essent, ut neque evadere possent in iugum occupatum ab hoste nec receptum ab tergo circumventi haberent, extrahi tamen diutius certamen potuisset, ni coepta ab Etruscis fuga pavorem ceteris 15 iniecisset. Non tamen omisere pugnam deserti ab Etruscis Fregellani, donec integri consules hortando ipsique ex parte pugnando rem sustinebant; sed postquam vulneratos ambo consules, Marcellum etiam transfixum lancea prolabentem ex equo moribundum 20 videre, tum et ipsi—perpauci autem supererant—cum Crispino consule duobus iaculis ieto et Marcello adolescente saucio et ipso effugerunt.
Livy, xxvii. 27.
Context. Marcellus was Consul for a fifth time in 208 B.C. After the attempt to retake Locri (S.E. of Bruttium) was frustrated by Hannibal, Marcellus and his colleague Crispinus faced H. near Venusia in Apulia. Hannibal hoped to bring on a decisive action, but Marcellus adopted Fabian tactics, and himself headed a cavalry reconnaissance to explore the country between the Roman and the Carthaginian camps.
2-3 Numidis speculator. A wooded hill lay between the two camps: H. had posted here in ambush some Numidian horsemen.
4-5 si quos possent excipere = on the chance of their being able to intercept.—Stephenson.
6-8 Non ante . . . circumiere = those who were to spring on the enemy (lit. those to whom it was necessary to rise in a mass confronting the enemy obviis) from the hill itself did not show themselves until a detachment had made their way round (circumiere).—S.
10 valle = a hollow, i.e. a depression on the Roman side of the hill.
16 Fregellani. Fregellae, a town of the Volsci, on the Via Latina between Rome and Campania, colonised 328 B.C.
17 ipsique ex parte pugnando = taking their share in fighting. S.
Character of Marcellus. ‘He was a brave soldier, a firm intrepid patriot, and an unflinching enemy of the enemies of Rome, but as a general no match for Hannibal.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Character of Scipio Africanus Maior.
Fuit enim Scipio non veris tantum virtutibus mirabilis, sed arte quoque quadam ab iuventa in ostentationem earum compositus, pleraque apud multitudinem aut ut per nocturnas visa species aut velut divinitus mente monita agens, sive et ipse capti 5 quadam superstitione animi, sive ut imperia consiliaque velut sorte oraculi missa sine cunctatione exsequerentur. Ad hoc iam inde ab initio praeparans animos, ex quo togam virilem sumpsit, nullo die prius ullam publicam privatamque rem egit, quam 10 in Capitolium iret, ingressusque aedem consideret et plerumque solus in secreto ibi tempus tereret. Hic mos, quem per omnem vitam servabat, seu consulto seu temere vulgatae opinioni fidem apud quosdam fecit, stirpis eum divinae virum esse. Multa alia 15 eiusdem generis, alia vera, alia assimulata, admirationis humanae in eo iuvene excesserant modum; quibus freta tunc civitas aetati haudquaquam maturae tantam rerum molem tantumque imperium permisit.
Livy, xxvi. 19.
2-3 in ostentationem earum compositus = he made a study (compositus) of displaying them, implying artificiality.—R.
3-5 pleraque . . . agens = in most of his dealings (pleraque agens) with the mob (representing his plans) as inspired (visa) by visions in the night or as matters of inspiration (divinitus mente monita).
7 sorte = by an oracular response (which was often written on a little tablet or lot, sors).
11 aedem, i.e. the cella (chapel, the part enclosed within the four side-walls) of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.
13-14 seu consulto seu temere vulgatae = whether designedly or undesignedly spread abroad.
17 humanae = which one has for a mere man.—Rawlins.
19 tantam rerum molem = so stupendous a task.—R. In 212 or 211 B.C. the two brothers, Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, were totally defeated by Hasdrubal and fell at the head of their troops. Scipio, son of this P. Scipio, was in 210 B.C. sent to Spain, at the age of 27, as proconsul in command of a reinforcement of 11,000 men.
Character of Scipio. ‘He was a man far above the average of his contemporaries, and possessed a greatness of mind which could not fail to rivet attention. He differed from the majority of generals by not only daring to conceive bold plans, but by contriving to carry them out.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Scipio takes New Carthage, 210 B.C.
Scipio ipse, ut ei nuntiatum est aestum decedere, quod per piscatores Tarraconenses nunc levibus cymbis, nunc, ubi eae siderent, vadis pervagatos stagnum compertum habebat, facilem pedibus ad murum transitum dari, eo secum armatos quingentos 5 duxit. Ubi urbem sine certamine intravere, pergunt inde, quanto maximo cursu poterant, ad eam portam, circa quam omne contractum certamen erat. In quod adeo intenti omnium non animi solum fuere, sed etiam oculi auresque pugnantium spectantiumque 10 et adhortantium pugnantes, ut nemo ante ab tergo senserit captam urbem, quam tela in aversos inciderunt et utrimque ancipitem hostem habebant. Tunc turbatis defensoribus metu et moenia capta, et porta intus forisque pariter refringi coepta; et mox 15 caedendo confectis ac distractis, ne iter impediretur, foribus armati impetum fecerunt. . . . Quoad dedita arx est, caedes tota urbe passim factae, nec ulli puberum qui obvius fuit parcebatur; tum signo dato caedibus finis factus; ad praedam victores versi, 20 quae ingens omnis generis fuit.
Livy, xxvi. 45, 46 (sel.)
3 vadis pervagatos stagnum = made their way through the pool by wading (vadis).
8 contractum = concentrated (confined).
13 ancipitem = double, twofold, on two opposite sides.
15 intus forisque = both within and without.
foris, adv. (an abl. form from an obsolete nom. fora) = out of doors, without. Cf. foras = out through the doors, forth.
16-17 caedendo . . . distractis foribus = when the doors were destroyed and broken up by blows.
Carthago Nova (Carthagena) was founded by Hasdrubal (the uncle of Hannibal) 243 B.C. The city is situated on a promontory running out into the sea, and possesses one of the finest harbours in the world, protected by an island as by a natural breakwater. But it had a weak side, and this had been betrayed by fishermen to Scipio. During ebb-tide the water of the shallow pool W. of the town fell so much that it was fordable and the bottom was firm. Of this Scipio took advantage. He first made a feint attack on the N. wall and then led 500 men across the ford, who scaled the W. wall and opened the nearest gate from the inside.
Result of its Capture. ‘New Carthage, the key of Spain, the basis of operations against Italy, and the Carthaginian arsenal, was taken, thus determining the issue of the Spanish War.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Nero’s famous March to the Metaurus, 207 B.C.
Praemissi (nuntii) per agrum Larinatem Marrucinum Frentanum Praetutianum, qua exercitum ducturus erat, ut omnes ex agris urbibusque commeatus paratos militi ad vescendum in viam deferrent, equos iumentaque alia producerent, ut 5 vehiculorum fessis copia esset. Ipse de toto exercitu civium sociorumque quod roboris erat delegit, sex milia peditum, mille equites. . . . Et hercule per instructa omnia ordinibus virorum mulierumque undique ex agris effusorum, inter vota ac preces et 10 laudes ibant: illos praesidia rei publicae, vindices urbis Romanae imperiique appellabant; in illorum armis dextrisque suam liberorumque suorum salutem ac libertatem repositam esse. Deos omnes deasque precabantur, ut illis faustum iter, felix pugna, matura 15 ex hostibus victoria esset, damnarenturque ipsi votorum, quae pro iis suscepissent, ut, quem ad modum nunc solliciti prosequerentur eos, ita paucos post dies laeti ovantibus victoria obviam irent. Invitare inde pro se quisque et offerre et fatigare 20 precibus, ut quae ipsis iumentisque usui essent, ab se potissimum sumerent; benigne omnia cumulata dare. Modestia certare milites, ne quid ultra usum necessarium sumerent; nihil morari, nec abscedere ab signis nec subsistere nisi cibum capientes: diem 25 ac noctem ire; vix quod satis ad naturale desiderium corporum esset, quieti dare.
Livy, xxvii. 43, 45 (sel.)
Context. Nero, on hearing from the captured Numidian horsemen of Hasdrubal’s march and plans—to meet Hannibal in Umbria and then to march on Narnia and Rome—with 6000 picked foot and 1000 horse withdrew secretly from his camp before Hannibal at Canusium, and by a forced march joined his colleague Livius at the Metaurus.
1-2 Larinatem, etc., districts lying between Apulia and Umbria, but not given in their geographical order.
15 faustum (for favostus, fav-eo) = that which is done under the blessing of the gods: felix = that which succeeds in consequence of having this blessing upon it.—Stephenson.
16-17 damnarentur . . . votorum = condemned (to pay) their vows. Cf. Verg. Voti reus = bound to my vow, i.e. bound to fulfilment.
23 Modestia certare (sc. cum iis) . . . sumerent = the soldiers were as moderate as they were pressing, refusing to take anything . . .—S.
‘Nero showed a resolution and a strategic ability which far surpassed the average qualifications of Roman generals.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
The Metaurus, 207 B.C.
Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis;
Est in iuvencis, est in equis patrum
Virtus, neque imbellem feroces
Progenerant aquilae columbam;
Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam,
Rectique cultus pectora roborant;
Utcumque defecere mores,
Indecorant bene nata culpae.
Quid debeas, o Roma, Neronibus,
Testis Metaurum flumen et Hasdrubal
Devictus et pulcher fugatis
Ille dies Latio tenebris,
Qui primus alma risit adorea,
Dirus per urbes Afer ut Italas
Ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus
Per Siculas equitavit undas.
Post hoc secundis usque laboribus
Romana pubes crevit, et impio
Vastata Poenorum tumultu
Fana deos habuere rectos.
Horace, Odes, IV. iv. 29-48.
29-36 The thought is: ‘It is true that scions of a good stock must be good in men as well as in animals, but yet education (doctrina = training l. 33) brings out the innate force.’
29 fortibus et bonis. For the combined epithets cf. καλὸς κἀγαθός.
36 Indecorant . . . culpae = faults disfigure (indecorant = dedecorant) scions of an honourable stock (bene nata).
37 Neronibus, e.g. M. Claudius Nero (the hero of Metaurus), and the brothers Drusus and Tiberius (afterwards Emperor), stepsons of Augustus.
41 alma adorea = with kindly (refreshing) success.
43 ceu flamma per taedas = like fire through a pine-forest.—W.
44 equitavit = galloped, careered, used of Hannibal, and, by zeugma, with flamma and Eurus.
46-47 impio tumultu = by the sacrilegious invasion (or riot, outrage), possibly with reference to Livy’s story (xxvi. 11) of the plundering of the Temple of Feronia.
48 rectos = upright, i.e. of the images supposed to have been thrown down by Hannibal, and not set on their pedestals again.
Results of the Battle. ‘The war in Italy was to all appearances finished, and it was on the Metaurus that the Romans conquered Spain.’—Ihne. When Hannibal recognised the head of his brother Hasdrubal, he foresaw the doom of Carthage:—
‘Lost, lost is all:
A nation’s hope, a nation’s name,
They died with dying Hasdrubal.’
C. (Hor. Od. IV. iv. 70-73).
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Hannibal leaves Italy, 203 B.C.
Nihil certe ultra rei in Italia ab Hannibale gestum. Nam ad eum quoque legati ab Carthagine vocantes in Africam eis forte diebus, quibus ad Magonem, venerunt. Frendens gemensque ac vix lacrimis temperans dicitur legatorum verba audisse. 5 Postquam edita sunt mandata, ‘Iam non perplexe,’ inquit, ‘sed palam revocant, qui vetando supplementum et pecuniam mitti iam pridem trahebant. Vicit ergo Hannibalem non populus Romanus totiens caesus fugatusque, sed senatus Carthaginiensis 10 obtrectatione atque invidia; neque hac deformitate reditus mei tam P. Scipio exsultabit atque efferet sese quam Hanno, qui domum nostram, quando alia re non potuit, ruina Carthaginis oppressit.’ Iam hoc ipsum praesagiens animo praeparaverat 15 ante naves. Itaque inutili militum turba praesidii specie in oppida Bruttii agri, quae pauca magis metu quam fide continebantur, dimissa, quod roboris in exercitu erat in Africam transvexit. Raro quemquam alium, patriam exilii causa relinquentem, 20 tam maestum abisse ferunt quam Hannibalem, hostium terra excedentem.
Livy, xxx. 19, 20.
Context. Scipio (204 B.C.) landed in Africa and won such decisive victories over the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, that ii was necessary in 203 B.C. to recall both Mago and Hannibal.
3-4 ad Magonem. Mago, H.’s youngest brother, had in 205 B.C. been despatched from Carthage with considerable reinforcements for H. He took Genoa, again roused the Gauls against Rome, and in 203 B.C. fought an indecisive action with the Romans. Mago was severely wounded, and died at sea before he reached Africa.
6 Iam non perplexe = now in no veiled manner (lit. not obscurely).
8 iam pridem trahebant = began long ago to try to pull me back.—Rawlins.
11 obtrectatione = by disparagement.
13 Hanno, the leader of the aristocratic (peace) party at Carthage, and the persistent opponent of Hamilcar Barca and his sons.
Hannibal’s Speech. ll. 6-15. This is purely imaginary and illustrates the bitter hatred of the Romans for H. They alleged that H. was personally responsible for the war, and that he undertook it for selfish and party ends. Also that Carthage, unable to prevent the war, withheld supplies and reinforcements. Ihne says ‘The whole course of the war is a sufficient refutation of these charges.’
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Zama, 202 B.C. (1) Before the Battle.
Ita infecta pace ex colloquio ad suos cum se recepissent, frustra verba praelata renuntiant: armis decernendum esse habendamque eam fortunam, quam dei dedissent. In castra ut est ventum, pronuntiant ambo, arma expedirent milites animosque ad 5 supremum certamen, non in unum diem sed in perpetuum, si felicitas adesset, victores. Roma an Carthago iura gentibus daret, ante crastinam noctem scituros; neque enim Africam aut Italiam, sed orbem terrarum victoriae praemium fore; par 10 periculum praemio, quibus adversa pugnae fortuna fuisset. Nam neque Romanis effugium ullum patebat in aliena ignotaque terra et Carthagini supremo auxilio effuso adesse videbatur praesens excidium. Ad hoc discrimen procedunt postero die duorum 15 opulentissimorum populorum duo longe clarissimi duces, duo fortissimi exercitus, multa ante parta decora aut cumulaturi eo die aut eversuri. Anceps igitur spes et metus miscebant animos; contemplantibus modo suam modo hostium aciem, cum non oculis 20 magis quam ratione pensarent vires, simul laeta simul tristia obversabantur.
Livy, xxx. 31, 32.
1-2 Ita infecta pace . . . renuntiant, referring to Livy’s picturesque account of the personal interview between Scipio and Hannibal, and the fruitless negotiations for peace.
7-10 Roma an Carthago . . . praemium fore. ‘By the victory of Zama it was decided that the states of the ancient world should be welded into one great empire, and that this empire should be founded by Rome and not by Carthage.’—Ihne.
14 effuso = dispersed, i.e. defeated.
15 discrimen = decisive point, decision.
18 aut cumulaturi aut eversuri = either to augment (lit. heap up) or overthrow.
21 pensarent vires = they estimated (weighed) their strength.
The Battle of Zama. ‘Here, too, the elephants proved disastrous to their own side. Some ran down the spaces between the Roman maniples (see [C 39, B. note]), and were of no further use; while others, driven aside by the Roman skirmishers, threw H.’s Carthaginian cavalry into such disorder that they were unable to resist the attack of Scipio’s horse. The first Roman line threw H.’s mercenaries back upon their reserves of the second line, and in the confusion that ensued Scipio advanced with his second and third lines. The combat raged long and fiercely until Scipio’s Roman and Numidian cavalry, returning from their pursuit of H.’s horse, fell upon the enemy’s rear and decided the battle.’—Ihne.
SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.
Zama, 202 B.C. (2)
The Order of Battle.
[A.] Hannibal adversus Scipionem, post elephantos lxxx, qui in prima fronte positi hostium turbarent aciem, auxiliares Gallos et Ligures et Baliares Maurosque posuit, ut neque fugere possent Poenis a tergo stantibus et hostem oppositi, si non infestarent, 5 at certe fatigarent: tum suis et Macedonibus, qui iam fessos Romanos integri exciperent, in secunda acie collocatis, novissimos Italicos constituit, quorum et timebat fidem et segnitiam verebatur, quoniam plerosque eorum ab Italia invitos extraxerat. 10
Hannibal’s Army. It consisted broadly of five classes:
1. His veteran army of Italy, on which he could thoroughly rely, partly Carthaginian, partly Italian (mostly Bruttians).
These he placed in his third line.
2. A newly raised force of Carthaginian and Libyan militia.
These he placed in his second line.
3. Mercenaries, consisting of Moors, Gauls, Ligurians, the Balearic contingent, and the Spaniards.
These he placed in his first line.
4. Carthaginian and Numidian cavalry.
These he placed on his wings.
5. 80 elephants. These he placed on his front, to open the attack.
[B.] Scipio adversus hanc formam robur legionis triplici acie in fronte ordinatum per hastatos et principes et triarios opposuit: nec continuas construxit cohortes, sed manipulis inter se distantibus spatium dedit, per quod elephanti ab hostibus acti 15 facile transmitti sine perturbatione ordinum possent. Ea ipsa intervalla expeditis velitibus implevit, ne interluceret acies, dato his praecepto, ut ad impetum elephantorum vel retro vel in latera concederent. Equitatum deinde in cornua divisit et dextro Romanis 20 equitibus Laelium, sinistro Numidis Masinissam praeposuit: quae tam prudens ordinatio non dubie causa victoriae fuit.
Frontinus, Strategemata, ii. 3. 16.
Scipio’s order of battle. Instead of drawing up his manipuli like the black squares of a chessboard—the usual order, so that, in advancing, the manipuli of the three lines could form one unbroken line—he placed them one behind the other, like the rounds of a ladder, so as to leave spaces in the lines, through which the elephants might pass without trampling down or throwing into confusion the infantry battalions, e.g.:
| not | *** *** *** | but | *** *** *** |