REMARKS ON THE SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES.

270. Suffix -AĈ-. Prefixes FI- and FUŜ-.

The suffix -aĉ- denotes badness of quality or condition, and is used with any part of speech to show disparagement, contempt. Fuŝi, to botch, bungle, do blunderingly, is sometimes used as a prefix with a similar meaning, though it is less frequently used than -aĉ.

Aĉa = nasty; domaĉo = a hovel; veteraĉo = vile weather; ĉapelaĉo = a shabby hat; fuŝkonstrui, or, konstruaĉi = to jerry-build.

The exclamation Fi = fie! for shame! is used as a prefix to denote shamefulness, disgustingness, nastiness. Fi- denotes moral rather than physical badness, and is stronger than -aĉ-, which has a more general sense.

Fidomo = a house of ill repute; fivorto = a naughty word; firakonto = a low story.

270 (1). Suffix -AD-. (Ex. [19].)

(a). This suffix marks that an action is being continued or is habitual. It marks an action of some duration, not momentary. Thus, pafo = a shot from a gun (the gun is fired, and the action is over); but pafado = a fusillade (a continuance of shots of more or less duration).

Thus dancado = dancing, desegnado = designing, drawing, kantado = singing, legado = reading, pentrado = painting, skulptado = (the art of) sculpture, skribado = writing. These words signify not momentary acts, but habitual actions; in fact, they are used to denote arts or practices, as the art of painting, singing, etc. Kanto = A song. Ŝia kanto plaĉas al mi = Her song pleases me. Ŝia kantado ĉarmas min = Her singing charms me.

(b). If we wish to speak of the faculties of hearing, smelling, touching, thought, feeling, will, we say aŭdado, flarado, palpado, pensado, sentado, volado; but if we speak of isolated acts of such faculties, we say aŭdo, flaro, palpo, penso, sento, volo.

(c). Sometimes the word arto is used when we wish to specify that some -ado is an art.

Examples.—Danc-arto (dancado) = the art of dancing, kant-arto (kantado) = the art of singing, pentr-arto (pentrado) = the art of painting.

N.B.—The hyphens are not necessary.

(d). The difference in meaning of words with and without the suffix is seen in such words as:—

Movo = a motion, movado = movement (general), progreso = a step of progress, progresado = progress (general), parolo = word (spoken), parolado = speech, discourse, fumo = smoke, fumado = smoking (habit of smoking), verko = a work (literary or musical), verkado = composition (lit.).

(e). In the verb itself we use this suffix to show that the action is not merely momentary, but is being continued, repeated, or is habitual; an aspect of the verb which is, in English, often expressed by the words "keep on," "used to," etc.

Examples.—Mi saltadis la tutan tagon de loko al loko = I jumped (about) all day long from place to place (kept on jumping). Viziti = To visit. Vizitadi = To frequent, to haunt.

(f). Where the root plus o denotes the name of an object, the ending -ado introduces the idea of action, thus: krono = a crown; kronado = coronation; martelo = a hammer; martelado = hammering, etc.

(g). Do not therefore use -AD- without thinking of its significance, or merely for the sake of euphony.

271. Suffixes -AĴ- and -EC-. (Ex. [20]).

(a). -AĴ- denotes something having the quality denoted by the root, or made or derived from that which is named by the root. It is also used to denote the flesh of animals intended for food.

Examples.—Ĉasi = to hunt, ĉasaĵo = game. Armi = to arm, armaĵo = armour. Bovo = an ox, bovaĵo = beef. Ovo = an egg, ovaĵo = an omelet.

(b). -EC- denotes an abstract quality, similar to the English suffixes, -nce, -ncy, -ness, -tude, -ity.

Examples.—Pura = clean, pureco = purity, cleanness. Feliĉa = happy, feliĉeco = happiness, felicity. Sen = without, seneco = dearth, want. Kuraĝa = courageous, kuraĝeco = fortitude. Danki = to thank, dankeco = gratitude, thankfulness. Riĉa = rich, riĉeco = wealth.

(c). Both suffixes apply to good or bad qualities. They can be used as roots, as aĵo = a thing, eco = a quality, a distinctive mark.

(d). A comparison of the following words will best illustrate their meaning.

Amiko = a friend, amikaĵo = a friendly act, amikeco = friendship. Bona = good, bonaĵo = a good (action or thing), boneco = goodness. Fortika = solid, robust, fortikaĵo = a stronghold, fortikeco = robustness. Mola = soft, molaĵo = a soft substance, pulp, moleco = softness. Sprita = witty, spritaĵo = a witticism, spriteco = wittiness. Malsprita = dull, stupid, malspritaĵo = a stupidity, a bêtise, malspriteco = stupidity, a state of silliness.

(e). To express an idea itself, namely, one that is neither concrete (-AĴ-) nor abstract (-EC-), we add only the grammatical termination to the root. For instance, la bono = the good, good (itself), and from this arises bonaĵo = a good action, or, something good, the abstract quality being boneco = goodness. Again, acido = an acid, acidaĵo = an acid thing, something which has an acid taste, acideco = acidity. So, heroo = a hero, heroaĵo = an exploit (something heroic), heroeco = heroism. The student should guard against the tendency of some writers to over-use -ec-: e.g., to use feliĉeco, kuraĝeco, boneco, rapideca, in cases where the sense does not call for a qualitative suffix, and simple feliĉo, kuraĝo, bono, rapida, would be more appropriate. In other words, use eco only when you wish to accentuate the abstractness, the "nessness" of the idea.

Examples.—La bono, kiun vi faras estas rimarkinda, ĉar via boneco ĉiam instigadas vin fari bonaĵojn = The good that you are doing is remarkable, for your goodness is always prompting you to do kind acts. Vitriolo estas acido, sed vinagro estas nur acidaĵo, kvankam ambaŭ posedas acidecon = Vitriol is an acid, but vinegar is only a sour fluid, although both possess acidity. La heroo de la heroaĵo montris grandan heroecon = The hero of the exploit showed great heroism. La amiko montras sian amikecon per amikaĵoj = A friend shows his friendship by friendly acts.

272. Suffixes -AN-, -IST-, -ESTR-, -UL-. (Ex. [21]).

These four suffixes relate to individuals. When combined with a root, one or other of them serves to show a person’s country, religion, profession, occupation, character, etc. Each has its distinct meaning, and care must be taken not to confuse them. The feminine suffix -IN- is added to denote females.

(a). Like the English -an, -man, -AN- denotes a member of something, such as a club, society, etc.; an inhabitant of a place or country; a partisan; an adherent to a party, faction, religion, etc.

Examples.—Klubo = a club, klubano = a member of a club. Senato = senate, senatano = a senator. Ameriko = America, amerikano = an American. Londono = London, londonano = a Londoner. Parizo = Paris, parizano = a Parisian. Urbo = a town or city, urbano = a townsman or citizen. Kamparo = country (rural), kamparano = a countryman. Vilaĝo = a village, vilaĝano = a villager. Insulo = an

island, insulano = an islander. Kristo = Christ, Kristano = a Christian. Partio = a party, partiano = a partisan.

(b). The suffix -AN- itself is used as a root. Ano = a member, anaro = a band (a collection of members of something).

(c). -IST-, like the English affix -ist, denotes a person following a profession or trade, or some occupation by which he gains his livelihood, or who is habitually engaged in science, art, etc. In short, it denotes habitual occupation (not necessarily for the sake of gain).

Examples.—Juĝi = to judge, juĝisto = a judge. Kuraci = to treat the sick, kuracisto = a doctor. Drogo = a drug, drogisto = a druggist. Maro = sea, maristo = a sailor (by occupation). Rabi = to rob, rabisto = a robber. Ŝteli = to steal, ŝtelisto = a thief. Pentri = to paint, pentristo = a painter (art). Kolorigi = to colour, paint, kolorigisto = a painter (house). Servi = to serve, servisto or servistino = servant (male or female). Astrologio = astrology, astrologiisto (or, astrologo) = an astrologer.

(d). -IST- is used only when there is a root to which it may be added to form the name of someone engaged in a trade, occupation, etc., as shown in the above examples. Thus, from Kudri = to sew, ŝuo = a shoe, boto = boot, we get kudristino = a seamstress or dressmaker, ŝuisto = a shoemaker, botisto = a bootmaker. When there is no such root, Esperanto provides an independent root, as:—Tajloro = a tailor, lakeo = a lackey, or valet.

(e). When the person is engaged in a temporary occupation, or is not a professional, but an amateur, a participle is often used.

Examples.—Juĝanto = a judge (of something), juĝisto, a judge (by occupation or profession). Amanto = a lover, amisto = a lover, a sweetheart, a gallant. Fotografanto = a photographer, one who is now photographing, fotografisto = a professional photographer. Laboranto = a person working, laboristo = a labourer, or man who works for a livelihood.

(f). -ESTR- denotes a person who is a chief, leader, ruler, principal, or head of a State, party, body, etc. In the same way as the suffix -AN- denotes a member of some profession, body, etc., so -ESTR- would designate the head of it, as:—Urbo = a city, urbano = citizen, urbestro = a mayor, a chief citizen.

Examples.—Imperio = an empire, imperiestro = an emperor, imperiestrino = an empress. Regno = (the) State, regnestro = a ruler, head of (the) State. Ŝipo = a ship, ŝipestro = a captain of a merchant vessel, a skipper. Lernejo = a school, lernejestro = a schoolmaster, head master (a teacher would be instruisto). From polico = police, we get policano = a policeman (a member of the police force), policisto = an officer of police (one who has made the police his profession), policestro = chief of police.

(g). Ĉefo = chief, head, is used as a prefix as an equivalent of the English chief, main, head-, prime.

Examples.—Episkopo = a bishop, ĉefepiskopo = archbishop. Anĝelo = an angel, ĉefanĝelo = archangel.

Compare -estro (the one in command over) with ĉef- (principal in honour, in comparison with the others). Ĉefŝipo = principal ship, ŝipestro = ship’s captain.

(h). -UL- denotes a person characterized by the idea contained in the root, the root being used in an adjectival sense to express that an individual is "rich," "poor," "just," "good," etc.

Examples.—Riĉa = rich, riĉulo = a rich man. Malriĉa = poor, malriĉulo = a poor man, a pauper. Justa = just, justulo = a just or righteous man. Bona = good, bonulo = a good man. Bela = beautiful, belulino = a beauty, a beautiful woman. Paca = peaceful, paculo = a man of peace. Juna = young, junulo = a youth, junulino = a young woman. Avara = avaricious, avarulo = a miser.

(i). Primary words can be used also as roots when applicable.

Examples.—Tie = there, tieulo = an aborigine (a man of there). Tiam = then, at that time, tiamulo = a contemporary (a man of that time). Kun = with, kunulo = a companion (a person with you).

(j). Since words like legi = to read, viziti = to visit, etc., are not adjectival in character, we use with them (in describing a person) by preference not -UL- but -IST- or a participial termination.

Examples.—Leganto = a reader (who is reading), leginto = a reader (who has read), legonto = a reader (who is about to read), legisto = a reader (by habitual occupation). But legemulo = a person who is fond of reading.

273. Suffixes -AR- and -ER-. (Ex. [22].)

Aro = a collection, and ero = an item; therefore aro da eroj might be termed "a collection of items."

(a). -AR- denotes a reunion or a collection of the idea contained in the root; a whole formed from a union of the parts.

Examples.—Vorto = a word, vortaro = a collection of words, a dictionary. Homo = a man, homaro = mankind. Arbo = a tree, arbaro = a wood, arbareto = a small wood, clump of trees. Arbeto = shrub, small tree, arbetaro = shrubbery, a grove. Insulo = an island, insularo = an archipelago. Vagono = a (railway) carriage, vagonaro = a train. Sekvanto = a follower, sekvantaro = suite, cortège, retinue. Nomo = a name, nomaro = list of names, a register. Ŝtupo = a step, ŝtuparo = a staircase, ŝtupetaro = a ladder, succession of small steps. Aristokrato = an aristocrat, aristokrataro = (the) aristocracy. Aro = a collection, a flock, a herd. If we wish to specify the animals, we can add the suffix to the name, as:—Bruto = cattle, brutaro = a herd of cattle. Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafaro = a flock of sheep. Abelo = a bee, abelaro = a swarm of bees.

(b). -ER- denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment, one of many similar parts which together form the whole.

Examples.—Sablo = sand, sablero = a grain of sand. Hajlo = hail, hajlero = a hailstone. Fajro = fire, fajrero = a spark. Mono = money, monero = a coin. Polvo = dust, polvero = an atom or speck of dust. Pulvo = gunpowder, pulvero = a grain of gunpowder. Sukero = sugar, sukerero = a grain of sugar.

274. Suffixes -ĈJ- and -NJ-. (Ex. [23].)

(a). -ĈJ- is an affectionate diminutive to the Christian name of a man. It is placed after any letter of the name not later than the fifth (occasionally, the sixth).

Examples.—Vilhelmo = William, Vilhelĉjo = Willie, Vilheĉjo = Will, Vilĉjo = Billy, Viĉjo = Bill. Petro = Peter, Peĉjo = Pete. Johano = John, Johanĉjo = Johnnie, Joĉjo = Jack. Nikolao = Nicholas, Nikolĉjo = Nickie, Nikoĉjo, Nikĉjo, or Niĉjo = Nick. Ernesto = Ernest, Erneĉjo, Ernĉjo, or Erĉjo = Ernie. Patro = father, patreto, paĉjo = papa.

(b). -NJ- is a similar diminutive for a female Christian name.

Examples.—Mario = Mary, Marinjo = Molly, Manjo = Polly. Klaro = Clara, Klanjo = Clarrie. Sofio = Sophia, Sonjo = Sophy. Patrineto, patrinjo, panjo = mamma, mammy, ma.

275. Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND-. (Ex. [24].)

(a). These three suffixes, when used as roots, form the words ebla = possible; emo = propensity, tendency; indo = worth, merit, value. As suffixes they are mostly used to form adjectives or adverbs, and the following three, from kredi = to believe, will give an idea of their different shades of meaning. Kredebla = credible, possible of belief, believable; kredema = credulous, having a tendency to believe; kredinda = worthy of belief.

(b). -EBL- denotes possibility, or what is likely to happen, similar to the English suffix -able, -ible.

Examples.—Pagi = to pay, pagebla = payable. Fleksi = to bend, fleksebla = flexible. Rompi = to break, rompebla = breakable. Fidi = to rely upon, fidebla = reliable. Kompreni = to understand, komprenebla = comprehensible, kompreneble = of course, comprehensibly.

(c). Do not confuse -EBL- with -EM- or -IND- in words which in English end in -able or -ible, but have two distinct meanings. For instance, "readable" may mean either "able to be read" or "worth reading." In Esperanto there is no such confusion, for legebla = readable, legible, but leginda = readable, worth reading. Hence we see that -EBL- must always denote possibility. It is possible to love or to honour all persons, whether they merit this or not; but when, in English, we talk of a lovable or honourable individual, we imply not possibility, but worthiness; therefore, in Esperanto, aminda = lovable, and honorinda = honourable. -EBL- is sometimes used for the infinitive.

Examples.—Tiuj ĉi vortoj ne estas troveblaj en la vortaro = These words are not to be found (findable) in the dictionary. Tia amo estas malfacile imagebla = It is difficult to imagine such love.

(d). -EM- denotes propensity, tendency, inclination, disposition, similar to the English suffix, -ful.

Examples.—Paco = peace, pacema = peaceful. Helpi = to help, helpema = helpful, obliging. Trompi = to deceive, trompema = deceitful, trompemo = duplicity. Servi = to serve, servema = obliging, servemo = inclination to serve. Labori = to work, laborema = laborious. Pura = clean, pure, purema = cleanly, purigebla = cleanable. Babili = to chatter, babilema = talkative, chattering. Koleri = to be angry, kolerema = irascible, ekkolerema = quick-tempered. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = disposed to sleep, sleepy, drowsy.

(e). Do not confuse -EM- with -IND- (or with -AM- (love) in compound words). For instance:—

Envii = to envy, enviema = envious, inclined to envy, enviinda = enviable, worthy or deserving of envy. Honti = to be ashamed, hontema = bashful, inclined to be ashamed, hontemo = bashfulness, hontinda = shameful, deserving of shame, impudent. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = drowsy, dormama = fond of sleep.

(f). -IND- denotes worthiness, worthy of.

Examples.—Inda = worthy, malinda = unworthy. Laŭdi = to praise, laŭdinda = praiseworthy. Memori = to remember, memorinda = memorable, worthy of being remembered. Estimi = to esteem, estiminda = esteemable, or estimable. If we use "estimable" in the sense of "able to be valued," we must form the word from taksi = to estimate, to value, taksebla = estimable, appraisable.

276. Suffix -EDZ-. (Exs. 25, 34.)

-EDZ- denotes a married person, and can scarcely be called a suffix, although classed as such, since it is generally used as a root.

Examples.—Edzo = a husband, a married man, edzino = a wife, a married woman, edzeco = matrimony, a state of marriage, edziĝo = a wedding, nuptials, edziĝa = nuptial, geedzoj = a married couple, husband and wife.

When reference is made to a woman, the feminine suffix -IN- is added to verbs as well as nouns and adjectives.

Examples.—Doktoredzino = a doctor’s wife; kudristinedzo = a seamstress’s husband; laboristedzino = a labourer’s wife; lavistinedzo = a washerwoman’s husband; tajloredzino = a tailor’s wife; edzigi (trans.) = to marry a couple, or to marry (a man to a woman), edzinigi (trans.) = to marry a woman to a man; edziĝi (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (man), edziniĝi (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (woman). Note the following sentences:—Li edziĝis kun sia kuzino, kvankam liaj gepatroj volis edzigi lin kun alia sinjorino = He was married to (with) his cousin, although his parents wished to marry him to (with) another lady. Ŝi edziniĝis kun sia kuzo, kvankam ŝiaj gepatroj volis edzinigi ŝin kun alia sinjoro = She was married to her cousin, although her parents wished to marry her to another gentleman.

277. Suffixes -EG- and -ET-. (Ex. [26].)

(a). These two suffixes are opposites, -EG- denoting augmentation, and -ET- diminution of degree. When employed in adjectives, the adverb "very" is often loosely used to denote the degree, as:—Grandega (very large), malgrandega (very little), but a better translation of these words is grandega = huge, enormous; malgrandega = tiny (see remarks on degrees of intensity of adjectives, par. [114]). If we cannot find English adjectives as equivalents of -EG- or -ET-, we should use not the adverb "very," but a stronger term, as "excessively," "enormously," etc.

(b). In the case of nouns we must be careful to use the right words to express the English meaning.

Examples.—Montego = a huge mountain, granda monto = a big mountain, monto = a mountain, malgranda monto = a small mountain, monteto = a hill, altaĵo = an eminence, altaĵeto = a hillock. Again:—Riverego = a huge river, larĝa rivero = a wide river, rivero = a river, malgranda rivero = a small river, rivereto = a brook, stream, malgranda rivereto = a streamlet.

(c). -EG- denotes augmentation, intensity of degree. Used as a root, ega = intense, egeco = intensity.

(d). -ET- denotes diminution of degree. Equivalent to the English suffixes -let in "streamlet," -ule in "globule," "pustule." Used as a root, eta = little, tiny, etulo = a little one.

Examples.—Pluvo = rain, pluvego = a downpour, pluveto = a shower. Ridi = to laugh, ridegi = to guffaw, rideti = to smile. Plori = to shed tears, ploregi = to weep bitterly, ploreti = to whimper. Dormi = to sleep, dormegi = to sleep heavily, dormeti = to doze, dormeto = a nap. Domo = a house, domego = a mansion, dometo = a cottage. Ŝnuro = cord, ŝnurego = rope, cable, ŝnureto = string, twine. Ami = to love, amegi = to idolize, ameti = to have some liking for.

N.B.—From the above we see that -EG- and -ET- may generally be translated by distinct words, and are not merely a substitute for adverbs, which will often more accurately express the meaning than the added suffix.

278. Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ-. (Ex. [27].)

These suffixes are akin, since they denote either a place or thing from which the idea of the root is produced, or in which it is contained.

(a). -EJ- denotes the place of, used for, or allotted to, the idea contained in the root. As a root, ejo = a place, a locality.

Examples.—Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafejo = a sheepfold, or a place specially used for sheep. Preĝi = to pray, preĝejo = a church, a place allotted to prayer. Fruktarbo = a fruit-tree, fruktarbejo = an orchard, a place used for fruit trees. Kafo = coffee, kafejo = a café. Vinbero = a grape, vinberejo = a vineyard. Armilo = a weapon, armilejo = an armoury. Tombo = a tomb, grave, tombejo = a cemetery. Manĝi = to eat, manĝejo = a refectory, manĝaĵo = food, manĝaĵejo = a larder. Planti = to plant, plantejo = nursery. Mallibera = captive, malliberejo = a prison. Bovino = a cow, bovinejo = cowshed. Lerni = to learn, lernejo = a school. Juĝi = to judge, juĝejo = a court of justice. Dormi = to sleep, dormejo = a dormitory. Herbo = grass, herbejo = a meadow, a field. Paperfari = to make paper, paperfarejo = a paper manufactory.

(b) -ING- denotes a thing for holding one object only. Used as a root, ingo = a socket, a sheath, a holder.

Examples.—Kandelo = a candle, kandelingo = a candlestick. Plumo = a pen, plumingo = a penholder. Fingro = a finger, fingringo = a thimble. Cigaredo = a cigarette, cigaredingo = a cigarette mouthpiece. Glavo = a sword, glavingo = scabbard, sheath (sword). Bajoneto = bayonet, bayonetingo = a scabbard (bayonet).

(c). -UJ- denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears. Used as a root, ujo = a receptacle, a container. It has a wide signification, for it can be used for:—

(1). The names of countries in cases where the root-word denotes the inhabitant, as being the places which contain their various races.

Examples.—Franco = a Frenchman, Francujo = France. Turko = a Turk, Turkujo = Turkey. Anglo = an Englishman, Anglujo = England. Germano = a German, Germanujo = Germany. Italo = an Italian, Italujo = Italy. Brito = a Briton, Granda Britujo = Great Britain. Hispano = a Spaniard, Hispanujo = Spain.

N.B.—Lando can be used instead of -ujo, if desired.

Where the root-word denotes not the inhabitant, but the country, uj is of course not used, e.g., Aŭstralio, Nederlando, Usono. In these cases the name of the inhabitant is formed by an from that of the country, thus: aŭstraliano. See par. [272] (a).

(2). The names of trees producing fruits.

Examples.—Pruno = a plum, prunujo = a plum-tree. Kaŝtano = a chestnut, kaŝtanujo = a chestnut-tree. Piro = a pear, pirujo = a pear-tree. Migdalo = an almond, migdalujo = an almond-tree. Moruso = a mulberry, morusujo = a mulberry-tree. Ĉerizo = a cherry, ĉerizujo = a cherry-tree.

Arbo can be used instead of ujo in such cases, and is preferable, because clearer, thus: prunarbo, ĉerizarbo.

(3). The names of receptacles commonly used for certain articles.

Examples.—Teo = tea, teujo = a tea-caddy or canister (a teapot is a vessel in which tea is made, not kept, therefore tekruĉo = a teapot, from kruĉo = a vessel for fluids). Mono = money, monujo = a purse. Papero = paper, paperujo = a portfolio. Sukero = sugar, sukerujo = a sugar-basin. Karto = a card, kartujo = a card-case. Abelo = a bee, abelujo = a, beehive. Mustardo = mustard, mustardujo = mustard-pot.

(d). The difference in meaning of these three suffixes is shown in the following examples:—

For instance, cigaro = a cigar, cigarejo = a cigar depot; but if we wish to distinguish the kind of depôt, viz., store, shop, etc., we add the word required. If it be a store, we add tenejo = a storehouse, as:—Cigartenejo = a cigar storehouse or depôt. If a shop, we add vendejo = a market, or place where things are sold, as:—Cigarvendejo = a cigar shop, or we might say also cigarbutiko. Cigaringo = a cigar holder or mouthpiece, which holds one cigar. Cigarujo = a cigar case or box, which contains several cigars. Pomo = an apple, pomejo (or, pomarbejo) = an apple orchard, pomujo, pomarbo = an apple-tree.

279. Suffix -ID-. (Ex. [25].)

-ID- denotes the young of, offspring, descendant. Used as a root, ido = offspring, descendant; idaro = issue, posterity.

Examples.—Kato = a cat, katido = a kitten. Bovo = an ox, or a general term for the animal, hence bovido = a calf; if we wished to say a cow’s calf, we make bovo feminine, viz., bovino = a cow, bovinido = a cow’s calf of either sex. A cow calf we should call bovidino, and a bull calf, to determine it exactly, would be virbovido, viz., a male calf. It is important that suffixes should follow in their natural order (see order of suffixes, par. [46]). Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafido = a lamb. Cervo = a stag, cervido = a fawn. Hundo = a dog, hundido = a puppy. Ĉevalo = a horse, ĉevalido = a foal. Koko = a cock, kokido = a chicken, kokideto = a chick, a tiny chicken. Birdo = a bird, birdido = a fledgeling, a young bird. Izraelo = Israel, izraelido = an Israelite. Napoleono = Napoleon, napoleonido = a descendant of Napoleon. Reĝo = a king, reĝido = a prince, king’s son.

280. Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ-. (Ex. [28].)

(a). These two are the most important and most widely used of all the suffixes. They form an infinity of words, especially verbs. Used as roots, (1). Igi = to make, to cause, as:—Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado = Make her come to our dance. Li penis igi sian amikon tuŝi la aferon = He tried to make his friend broach the subject (touch upon the matter). (2). Iĝi = to become (to be made, to get), as La vetero iĝas pli varma = The weather is getting (becoming) warmer. Li baldaŭ iĝos maljunulo = He will soon become an old man.

(b). Used as suffixes:—

(1). -IG- denotes (like the English suffix -fy) to make, to cause (to get), to render, as ruĝa = red, ruĝigi = to make red, to redden, and from this verb is formed ruĝigo = the action of reddening, ruĝiga = reddening (adj.).

(2). -IĜ- denotes to become, to get (in the sense of to become). Note the following difference in meaning of ruĝa with this suffix and with -IG- in the preceding paragraph; ruĝiĝi = to become or get red, to blush; ruĝiĝo = the action of getting red, a blush; ruĝiĝa = blushing (adj.).

(c). The above instances are words derived from an adjective, but the suffixes can be applied to almost any part of speech, as the following examples will show:—

(d). From adjectives.

Examples.—Bona = good, bonigi = to make or render good, boniĝi = to become good. Plibonigi = to make better, to improve, pliboniĝi = to become better, to improve, plibonigo = the act of making better, improvement (made), pliboniĝo = the state of becoming better, improvement (experienced). Laca = tired, fatigued, lacigi = to tire (active), laciĝi = to get tired, lacigo = the act of tiring others, laciĝo = the state of growing tired. Preta = ready, pretigi = to make ready, pretiĝi = to get (become) ready. From all these verbs nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can be formed.

(e). From nouns.

Examples.—Fianĉo = a fiancé (man), fianĉigi = to betroth, to affiance, fianĉiĝi = to become betrothed, to be engaged, fianĉiĝo = betrothal, engagement, fianĉiĝa = betrothing, fianĉiĝe = by betrothal. These words speak of the betrothal of a man, but in case of a woman we add the feminine suffix, as:—fianĉino, fianĉinigi, fianĉiniĝi, fianĉinigo, etc., etc.

(f). From verbs.

Examples.—Morti = to die, mortigi = to cause to die, to kill, mortiĝi = to die out, to expire (become dead), mortigo = killing (murder), mortiga = deadly, mortiganto = a murderer, mortige = mortally. Sinmortigo = suicide, sinmortigi = to commit suicide. Sidi = to be sitting, to sit, sidigi = to cause to sit, sidiĝi = to sit down, to seat oneself, sidigo = the act of causing to sit, seating, sidiĝo = the act of sitting down, or of seating oneself, as:—Li kondukis la rigardontojn al iliaj sidejoj, sed la sidigo de tiom da gesinjoroj estis tasko malfacila, ĉar la sidiĝo de eĉ unu sinjorino bezonas iom da tempo, kvankam ne tiom, kiom la sidiĝo de hundo, kiu ofte turnadas sin multfoje antaŭ ol sidiĝi = He conducted the (about to be) spectators to their seats, but the seating of so many ladies and gentlemen was a difficult task, since the sitting down of even one lady needs some little time, although not so much as the sitting down of a dog, which often continues turning itself round many times before seating itself. Sciigi = to cause (someone) to know, or, to make (something) known. Mi sciigis la homon pri la novaĵo, or, Mi sciigis la novaĵon al la homo = I caused the man to know (or, I informed the man, or, I made the news known to the man). Sciiĝi = to become informed, to learn. Mi sciiĝis pri la novaĵo = I learnt the news.

(g). Verbs formed by -IGI are transitive (par. [161]), but those by -IĜI are intransitive, and therefore have no passive voice (par. [162]); with verbs in -IĜI, therefore, we cannot use the passive participles, -ATA, etc., but only the active forms -ANTA, etc., as:—Li estis fariĝinta (or, li fariĝis) maljunulo, antaŭ ol mi lin konis = He had become an old man before I knew him.

(h). Intransitive verbs.—Some verbs, such as ĉesi = to cease, daŭri = to continue, pasi = to pass, are neuter or intransitive.

Examples.—La pluvo ĉesas fali (or, ĉesiĝas) = The rain ceases to fall (or, comes to an end). La pafado daŭris kelkan tempon = The shooting continued some time. La tempo pasas = Time passes.

In English these verbs are used both transitively and intransitively, but if we wish to give them a transitive signification in Esperanto we must add the suffix -IGI.

Examples.—Ĉesigu tion! vi surdigas min per via bruo! = Cease that, you deafen me with your noise! Daŭrigu vian rakonton = Continue your narrative. Pasigu al mi la karafon = Pass me the decanter (see par. [237] (i)).

(i). Transitive verbs.—On the contrary, fini = to finish, and komenci = to commence, are transitive, and therefore do not require the addition of -IG to make them transitive.

Examples.—Finu vian laboron = Finish your work. Ni komencis nian vojaĝon je la dua horo = We commenced our journey at 2 o’clock.

But if we wish to give an intransitive sense to these verbs we may use the suffix -IĜI.

Examples.—Lia laboro finiĝas = His work finishes. La jaro finiĝos post kelkaj tagoj = The year will end in a few days. La vojaĝo komenciĝis je la tria horo = The journey commenced at 3 o’clock (see par. [237] (i)).

(j). Numerals, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes.—Joined to these, -IG- and -IĜ- serve to form numerous words.

Examples.—Unuigi = to unify, unuigo = union, unuiĝi = to unite together, to be combined, unuiĝo = union (undergone). Duobligi = to double, duobliĝi = to become double. Aligi al = to attribute to, aliĝi = to join (oneself) to, to adhere, aliĝo = adhesion. Eksigi = to dismiss, eksiĝi = to become ex-, to resign (a position). Disigi = to separate, disiĝi = to separate mutually, disigo = act of separating, disjunction, disiĝo = disunion, schism. Kunigi = to connect, kuniĝi = to join together, to coalesce, kunigo = connection, kuniĝo = junction. Forigi = to do away with, foriĝi = to withdraw.

281. Suffix -IL-. (Ex. [29].)

-IL- denotes the tool, instrument, or means by which something is done. As a root, ilo = a tool, an instrument, an implement, a means of.

Examples.—Kombi = to comb, kombilo = a comb. Razi = to shave, razilo = a razor. Tranĉi = to cut, tranĉilo = a knive. Haki = to hack, to chop, hakilo = an axe, a hatchet, a chopper. Kudri = to sew, kudrilo = a needle. Tondi = to shear, to clip, tondilo = shears, scissors. Presi = to print, presilo = a printing press. Fermenti = to ferment, fermentilo = yeast, leaven (a means of fermenting). Batali = to fight, batalilo = a weapon. Armi = to arm, armiloj = arms, armilejo = an arsenal (a place for arms, see -EJ-, 278).

282. Suffix -IN-. (Ex. [25].)

-IN- denotes the feminine gender. As a root, ino = a female, ina = female.

Examples.—Frato = a brother, fratino = a sister. Patro = a father, patrino = a mother. Kuzo = a male cousin, kuzino = a female cousin. Avo = grandfather, avino = grandmother. Nepo = a grandson, nepino = a granddaughter. Onklo = an uncle, onklino = an aunt. Nevo = a nephew, nevino = a niece. Patra = paternal, patrina = maternal, patrineco = maternity. Frata = brotherly, fraternal, fratina = sisterly. Ĉevalo = a horse, ĉevalino = a mare, ĉevalido = a colt, ĉevalidino = a filly. Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafino = a ewe. Hundo = a dog, hundino = a bitch. Bovo = an ox, bovino = a cow.

283. MOŜTO. (Ex. [23].)

(a). This is not a suffix, since it does not form part of a word. It is a word used by itself or added after a title to denote respect. Via moŝto is a higher expression of respect than sinjoro = sir.

(b). No special rule has been laid down for the use of moŝto, but the usual practice is to make the title an adjective and add moŝto.

(c). In speaking to persons bearing titles by birth or profession it would be well to address them by their full title first, as shown below, and afterwards use the expression via moŝto to represent "Your Majesty," "Your Royal Highness," "Your Grace," "Your Lordship," "Your Ladyship," "Your Honour," "Your Worship," "Your Excellency," "Your Eminence," "Your Highness," etc. The suffix -IN is hardly ever added.

Examples:—

N.B.—No title beyond his rank is given to a General in England, like "Monsieur le General" in France. We usually say "General," or "Sir," but moŝto might be used in Esperanto.

(d). As regards addresses of letters, we can say:—

284. Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP-. (Ex. [18].) These three suffixes are used with numerals, making them multiples, fractions, or collectives (see pars. [119], [120], [121]).

(a). -OBL- added to a cardinal number denotes the number is a multiple. It is equivalent to the English suffixes "-fold" or "-uple."

Examples.—Multoblo = a multiple, multobla = manifold. Unu = one, unuobla = single, unuoble = singly. Du = two, duobla = double, la duoblo = the double. Kvar = four, kvarobla = fourfold, quadruple, la kvaroblo = the quadruple. Cent = hundred, centoblo = a centuple. It is used in the multiplication table:—

kvaroble tri estas (or, faras) dek du4 times 3 = 12
kvinoble kvar estas dudek5 times 4 = 20
sesoble kvin estas tridek6 times 5 = 30
sepoble ses estas kvardek du7 times 6 = 42
okoble sep estas kvindek ses8 times 7 = 56
naŭoble ok estas sepdek du9 times 8 = 72
dekoble naŭ estas naŭdek10 times 9 = 90
dek-unuoble dek estas cent dek11 times 10 = 110
dek-duoble dek unu estas cent tridek du12 times 11 = 132

(b). -ON- added to a cardinal number denotes a fraction. As a root, ona = fractional.

Examples.—Du = two, duona = half, duone = by halves, duono = a half (1⁄2). Tri = three, triona = third, triono = a third (1⁄3). Kvar = four, kvarona = quarter, kvarono = a fourth (1⁄4). Dek = ten, dekona = tenth, dekono = a tenth (1⁄10), tri dekonoj = 3⁄10ths. Dek du = twelve, dek-duona = twelfth, dek-duono = a twelfth (1⁄12), kvin dek-duonoj = 5⁄12ths. Sesdek kvin centonoj = sixty-five hundredths (65⁄100). La kvinona parto (la kvinono) de cent estas la triona parto (la triono) de sesdek, tio estas dudek = The 5th part of 100 is the 3rd part of 60, that is 20.

(c). -OP- added to a cardinal number denotes that the number must be taken in a collective sense. As a root, opa = collective.

Examples.—Du = two, duope = two together, in twos. Tri = three, triope = in threes, in triplets. Dek = ten, dekope = in tens. Dudek = twenty, dudekope = in twenties, by scores. Cent = hundred, centope = in hundreds. Mil = thousand, milope = in thousands. Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me. La soldatoj marŝis kvarope = The soldiers were marching in fours.

285. Suffix -UM-. (Ex. [30].)

-UM- has no special meaning. Its different meanings are easily suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. There are but few words in which it is used, and these should be learnt as simple words.

The following embrace nearly all:—

N.B.—The 17 words marked * are given in Dr. Zamenhof’s "Fundamento de Esperanto."

286. Prefixes BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA-. (Ex. [25].)

These four prefixes all denote relationship in a greater or less degree.

(a). BO- denotes relationship by marriage, and is equivalent to the English suffix -in-law, as patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law.

(b). DUON- also denotes relationship by marriage, and is also a prefix in such words as duonpago = half-pay, duonjara = half-yearly, etc. As a root, duono = a half, so properly it should signify only half-blood relationship. As, however, there are few relationships of this nature, it is used also for step relationship, as:—Duonfrato = stepbrother or half-brother.

(c). GE- denotes both sexes taken together. The words are always in the plural, and the feminine suffix is, of course, never added.

Examples.—Edzo = a husband, geedzoj = husband and wife, a married couple. Sinjoro = Sir, Mr., gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., or, ladies and gentlemen. Patro = father, gepatroj = father and mother, parents. Mastro = a master (of a household), gemastroj = master and mistress. Frato = brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s).

(d). PRA- denotes great distance of time, past or future. As regards relationship, it is the equivalent of the English prefixes "fore-," "great," or "grand." As a root, praa = primeval.

Examples.—Pratempo = primitive time. Praarbarego = primeval forest. Prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. Praonklo = grand, or great, uncle. Praavino = great-grandmother.

(e). The following are examples of these four prefixes:—

Patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law, duonpatro = stepfather, gepatroj = father and mother, parents.

Patrino = mother, bopatrino = mother-in-law, duonpatrino = stepmother.

Avo = grandfather, boavo = grandfather-in-law, duonavo = stepgrandfather, geavoj = grandparents, prageavoj = great-grandparents.

Filo = son, bofilo = son-in-law, duonfilo = stepson.

Filino = daughter, bofilino = daughter-in-law, duonfilino = stepdaughter.

Nepo = grandson, pranepo = great-grandson, genepoj = grandson(s) and granddaughter(s), grandchildren.

Nepino = granddaughter, pranepino = great-granddaughter.

Frato = brother, bofrato = brother-in-law, duonfrato = step, or half, brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s), bogefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s)-in-law.

Fratino = sister, bofratino = sister in law, duonfratino = step, or half, sister.

Onklo = uncle, praonklo = grand, or great, uncle, geonkloj = uncle(s) and aunt(s).

Onklino = aunt, praonklino = grand, or great, aunt.

Nevo = nephew, pranevo = grandnephew, genevoj = nephew(s) and niece(s).

Nevino = niece, pranevino = grandniece.

Infano = child, duoninfano = stepchild.

287. Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR-. (Ex. [31].)

These three prefixes give the idea of separation or change of position.

(a). DE- as a preposition = from, of. As a prefix it marks the point of departure, or movement from one place or position to another.

(b). DIS- denotes a separation, in the sense of a rupture, or breaking up into parts, or in several different directions.

(c). FOR- as an adverb = away. As a prefix it denotes distance from something.

(d). Thus, birds on a tree can fly down from the tree to the ground = deflugi; or fly in different directions, viz., disperse = disflugi; or fly away altogether from the tree = forflugi.

(e) The following examples will give a good idea of the meanings of these prefixes:—

Ŝiri = to tear,deŝiri = to tear from, to pluck.
disŝiri = to tear to pieces, to lacerate.
forŝiri = to tear away from.
Iri = to go,deiri = to go from (a place).
disiri = to go in different directions, to separate.
foriri = to go away, to depart.
Ĵeti =to throw,deĵeti = to throw down, to overthrow.
disĵeti = to throw about, to demolish, scatter.
forĵeti = to throw away, to discard.
Meti = to put,demeti = to put down, take off, doff.
dismeti = to disperse, to distribute.
formeti = to put away, to omit.
Porti = to carry,deporti = to carry from, to deport.
disporti = to carry here and there.
forporti = to carry away.

288. Prefix EK-. (Exs. [19], [32].)

EK- denotes an action just begun, of short duration, sudden, momentary.

Examples.—Kanti = to sing, ekkanti = to begin to sing, or to start singing. Ridi = to laugh, ekridi = to burst out laughing. Krii = to cry, ekkrii = to exclaim, to cry out. Lerni = to learn, eklerni = to begin to learn. Iri = to go, ekiri = to start, to set out. Plori = to shed tears, ekplori = to burst out crying. Kapti = to catch, ekkapti = to seize. Dormi = to sleep, ekdormi = to fall asleep. Vidi = to see, ekvidi = to perceive. Tremi = to tremble, ektremi = to start (with fear, etc.).

EK- is useful in such expressions as "begin to," "come to," frequently used in English before a verb, as:—Kiam mi ekpripensas = When I begin to (or, come to) reflect. Kiam mi ekpensas pri ĝi = When I come to think of it.

289. Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN-. (Ex. [33].)

(a). These three prefixes give an opposite or negative meaning to the words before which they are placed, the nature of which varies with the prefix used.

(b). MAL- is used as a root in the adjective mala = contrary, and the adverb male = on the contrary, conversely. As a prefix it signifies that the word has a meaning exactly the contrary to that which it had before MAL- was prefixed. It is never used to give the meaning of badness, unless because it is prefixed to some word signifying goodness. For instance, timulo = a coward has a bad signification, but its opposite maltimulo = a bold man has no such meaning. Bona = good, malbona = bad, simply because "bad" is the opposite of "good."

(c). NE is a primary adverb, meaning "no," "not," and is often used as a prefix to give a negative signification to a word, as:—Plena = complete, full, neplena = incomplete, not full. Ne estas certe = it is not certain has the same signification as estas necerte = it is uncertain. Used as a root, it forms nei = to deny, nea = negative, etc.

(d). SEN is a preposition meaning "without," and as a prefix it has the same signification; as ĉesi = to cease, senĉesa = without ceasing, incessant, ceaseless; senco = meaning, sense, sensenca = without meaning, senseless; senkapigi = to decapitate. Used as a root, it forms senigi je = to deprive of, seneco = want, etc.

(e). The student may at first wonder which of these three prefixes to use in a given case. He should bear in mind that MAL- denotes the exact opposite of the root, and therefore it may be much stronger in signification than the mere negative ne = not, or the privative sen = without. For instance, plena = complete, full, but neplena = incomplete, not full. Now the opposite to "complete" or "full" is not "incomplete" or "not full," but something stronger, viz., "void" or "empty," therefore

malplena = empty, void, vacuous. Again, from riĉa = rich, we form the opposite, malriĉa = poor, which is clearly a worse state than neriĉa = not rich, or senriĉa, which, in its literal sense, means "without wealth or riches." A man not rich might be well off, a man without riches might have enough to live upon. Fermita = shut, closed; the opposite is malfermita = opened, open. Applied to a window it would mean the window was wide open, but if it were only ajar it would be better to say nefermita = not closed.

(f) In using MAL- we must consider the strength of the word to which we are giving an opposite meaning, and not oppose a word like "destitute" to "rich," for "destitute" is the opposite to "rolling in wealth," the adjective for which would be "riĉega," therefore malriĉega = destitute. So bela = beautiful, belega = splendid, magnificent; therefore their opposites are malbela = ugly, malbelega = hideous.

(g). Generally speaking, it will be right (1), to use MAL- if we wish to give a stronger idea than NE or SEN would infer; (2), to use NE in cases where a simple negative will give the meaning; (3), to use SEN if "without" is more applicable than "not," as:—Senmova = without motion, stationary, but nemovebla = not movable, immovable. It will generally be right to employ SEN to represent the English suffix -less, as:—Sendanka = thankless, senmona = penniless, senhara = hairless, bald, senutila = useless. The opposite to "useful" is something stronger than "useless," therefore malutila = detrimental, prejudicial.

(h). The following examples will give an idea of the use of these three prefixes:—

Venko = victory, malvenko = defeat. Videbla = visible, nevidebla = invisible. Ŝanĝebla = changeable (in the sense "able to be changed"), neŝanĝebla = unchangeable. Ofta = frequent, neofta = infrequent, malofta = scarce, rare. Simple = simple, malsimpla = intricate, complex. Permesi = to permit, malpermesi = to forbid. Helpi = to help, malhelpi = to hinder, nehelpi = to give no assistance. Sobreco = sobriety, malsobreco = intemperance, drunkenness. Saĝeco = wisdom, malsaĝeco = foolishness. Modesta = modest, nemodesta = officious, malmodesta = conceited. Justa = just, maljusta = unjust. Pura = clean, nepura = soiled, malpura = dirty. Pia = pious, malpia = impious. Agrabla = agreeable, neagrabla = unpleasant, malagrabla = disagreeable, nasty. Glata = smooth, malglata = rough. Atento = attention, malatento = negligence. Respekto = respect, nerespekto = non-respect, malrespekto = violation. Brua = noisy, senbrua = noiseless.

290. Prefix RE-. (Ex. [32].)

(a). RE-, like the English prefix re-, means "back" or "again." It denotes (1) the repetition of an action, or (2) the return of some person or thing to the person, place, or state with whom, or in which, such person or thing originally was. As a root, ree = again, in return.

(b) (1). Repetition.

Examples.—Refari = to make afresh, to remake; rediri = to say again, to repeat (ripeti is, however, more frequently used for "repeat"); rekanti = to sing again; rejuniĝi = to grow young again; renaskiĝo = rebirth, regeneration; repagi = to repay, to reimburse; reenmeti = to put in again, to reinstate; rekunigi = to reunite; rebruligi = to rekindle; reformi = to reform, to remodel; reprodukti = to reproduce.

(2). Return, etc.

Examples.—Redoni = to give back, to restore; repreni = to take back; reĵeti = to throw back; resalti = to rebound; rebrili = to shine back, to reflect; reveni = to come back, to return; reporti = to carry back, to carry to the original place.

N.B.—In addition to the 12 prefixes given in pars. [286]–290, nearly all the prepositions are in common use as prefixes. Examples of these will be found in par. [259]. When prefixed to a verb, the preposition is frequently repeated before the indirect complement (see par. [254]).

291. Prefixes SIN- and MEM-.

SIN- and MEM- are used as prefixes to translate the English -self. If the idea is reflexive, it is better to use sin-, otherwise mem-. Singardo = caution; sinmortigo = suicide; sinteno = attitude; memstara = independent; memvola = voluntary.

292. Prefix VIC-.

The prefix VIC- denotes the English vice-; vicprezidanto = a vice-president; vicadmiralo = a vice-admiral.

293. Suffix -ISM-.

The suffix -ISM- was officialized in 1914 with the rather wide meaning given it by international usage in most European languages: system, doctrine, school of thought, theory, party.

Thus: absolutismo = absolutism. Similarly, we have agnostik-, alkohol-, braman-, despot-, epikur-, Esperant-, fatal-, fetiĉ-, homaran-, katolik-, kvaker-, komun-, ideal-, liberal-, mistik-, presbiter-, protestant-, puritan-, radikal-, real-, respublik-, vegetar-ismo.

It does not follow that if from any Esperanto word ending in -ism this syllable is subtracted, the remainder is an Esperanto root. Thus, -ism is not a suffix in the roots atavism, feminism, optimism, pesimism, silogism, solecism, sofism, any more than ist, in, il, ul, an, are suffixes in the roots optimist, turist; doktrin, vazelin; bacil, asimil; okul, formul; banan, turban, sultan. See par. [52] (b).