SUCCULENT VEGETABLES.

The term vegetable as applied to food in the broadest sense of the word means that class which distinguishes it from animal food. In a narrower sense, however, the term vegetable is used to denote a certain class of food which is of a succulent or juicy nature. While cereals and fruits are vegetables in the broadest sense of the word they are not in the narrow and common meaning. The term “vegetable” in this section therefore refers to those substances commonly known as vegetables upon the market and which are characterized by their high water content. On account of this abundance of liquid or juice the term succulent is applied to them. The common vegetables which are included in this class consist of lettuce, spinach, potatoes, cauliflower, beets, radishes, turnips, cabbage, green Indian corn, peas, beans, tomatoes, yams, etc. These vegetables contain in a fresh state from 70 to 95 percent of water. Many of them can be kept for a length of time without deterioration, especially the potato and beet, and for a short time cabbage, radishes, etc., if kept cool and moist. Other kinds of vegetables are not easily preserved for any length of lime except in cold storage, such as lettuce, peas, beans, tomatoes, etc. If the potato and other starchy tubers are kept out of account these vegetables do not have a very high nutritive value, as will be seen by the analysis which follows. They have, however, an important part in the ration because of their palatability and the effect which they have upon the general activity of the alimentary canal. For instance, there is very little nourishment obtained in eating a turnip which perhaps is 95 percent water,—yet its palatability, its condimental character, and its general salutary effect upon digestion is such as to make it worth while to pay even a high price in proportion to its nutriment. For this reason, as well as for their nutritive value, the use of succulent vegetables is to be very highly commended.

In general, as has been said, these vegetables are eaten in a fresh state or after being kept for a considerable time in cold storage or otherwise. The potato, for instance, can be kept by properly covering it in the earth or in bins through the winter. Cabbages are also kept in the same way and many other vegetables without apparent deterioration. These vegetables are often desiccated, and in this way can be kept for a much longer period. Unfortunately no method of desiccation has been developed which preserves entirely the palatability of the vegetable, although its nutrient properties, which are perhaps the least important of its properties in many respects, are preserved to a certain extent by desiccation.

We may, however, leave out of consideration the desiccation of fresh vegetables. Certain of the vegetables above mentioned naturally become desiccated on maturity as in the case of peas and beans, but then they are removed from the category of succulent vegetables. Green Indian corn is also often dried, but in this process its palatability is to a certain extent impaired even when it is prepared for cooking in such a way as to restore practically all of the water which has been lost. Succulent vegetables are eaten either in a raw state or after cooking. For instance radishes and vegetables of this class are rarely cooked. On the other hand, potatoes, peas, and beans are always cooked and practically never eaten raw. Green Indian corn is also universally cooked before eating. There are other vegetables which are sometimes eaten raw and sometimes cooked, as, for instance, the turnip, while on the other hand the beet, which is very sweet and naturally would be considered a suitable food for eating in a raw state, is always cooked before it is consumed.

Artichoke.

—This vegetable, while not very extensively grown in the United States, is cultivated to a very extensive degree in Europe. The tubers of the artichoke (Cynara Scolymus) are essentially a carbohydrate food, growing underground, and thus belong, in a measure, to the same class as the potato, the yam, and the beet. The carbohydrates which are present in artichokes do not contain very much starch. In this respect they differ from the potato and the yam. When the starch of the potato and yam is converted by fermentation or otherwise into sugar it forms chiefly dextrose or maltose. On the other hand, when the carbohydrates of artichokes are converted into sugar they form chiefly levulose. The principal part of the carbohydrate is known as inulin or levulin. The artichoke can be easily kept over a long period of time, and may remain without much detriment in the ground, where the winters are not severe, from autumn until spring. After harvesting it may be kept for some time without any very great loss in its food value.

In the following table are given the data showing the composition of the artichoke, harvested in the autumn and also in the spring:

Spring:
Water,	79.03	percent
Inulin or levulin,	17.76	„
Protein,	1.27	„
Ether extract,	.18	„
Ash,	.99	„
Fall:
Water,	79.70	percent
Inulin or levulin,	16.93	„
Protein,	1.48	„
Ether extract,	.14	„
Ash,	1.08	„
(Behrend, J. für Landwirtschaft, vol. 52, p. 134, 1904.)

The above data show that the artichoke, like the potato, is a food product poor in protein and in fat and rich in carbohydrate material. In so far as known the carbohydrates of artichokes are equally as digestible and nutritious as those of other tubers.

Asparagus.

—Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.)—French, asperge; German, spargel; Italian, sparagio; Spanish, esparrago—is a highly prized vegetable and is a native of Europe. The edible asparagus is the young, fresh, undeveloped shoots taken at an early period of growth. They are highly valued when stewed or for use as a salad. There is a number of varieties of asparagus, among which may be mentioned the Giant Dutch asparagus, the common green asparagus, white German asparagus, etc. These are different in kind only, since they all belong to the same botanical species and the variations are produced chiefly by different methods of cultivation.

Composition.—

Water,	93.96	percent
Ash,	.67	„
Protein,	1.83	„
Fiber,	.74	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	2.55	„
Fat,	.25	„

Asparagus is composed chiefly of water, which amounts, in round numbers, to 94 percent of its entire weight. Its edible portion is rich in protein as compared with the beet and many other vegetables. It is somewhat richer also in fat than the beet or the turnip. Its food value, as will be seen, is largely of a condimental character.

The Bean.

—The bean belongs to the family Fabaceæ. It is a native of America and has been cultivated from the earliest times. There are many different varieties of the bean which are cultivated in this country. They grow over the whole range of the United States. There are early and late maturing varieties. Beans are used for food both in the fresh state, while the pods are tender and can be eaten with the immature beans, and also in the dry state, in which condition they are a staple article of food. There are many different varieties of beans which, while not always botanically identical, are sufficiently so to warrant the use of the common name. Two general classes, however, may be distinguished, namely, those that grow in small clusters or bunches and those that grow upon vines or tendrils which have to be supported. In regard to the kinds of culture to which beans are subjected there may be mentioned field beans, which are cultivated over a large area, and garden beans, which are cultivated in small gardens for the green markets.

Kidney Bean.

—The kidney bean, or French bean, is a special botanical variety (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). It is what is known in French as haricot; in German as Bohne; Dutch, Boon; Italian, faginolo; Spanish, habichuela. This variety of bean is commonly called a French bean and is a native of South America. It does not seem to have been known before the discovery of the American continent and hence is not thought to have grown wild in any other part of the world. The kidney bean is not very well suited to very high northern latitudes, since it is particularly sensitive to the cold, even if the temperature is not low enough to produce frost. The kidney bean is cultivated over large areas and is also a garden crop. There are early and late varieties, so that the season for the kidney bean is a long one. The pods of this bean are distinguished by being long and slender, and it is particularly valuable for edible purposes while green and is also prized for canning. This is true, especially, of that variety which has a tender pod.

There is another variety of bean in which the pod is tough, and this, of course, is not so well suited for eating green, although when very young, even the tough-podded bean can be used. There are a great many different varieties of kidney beans known, one of which is called the “dwarf kidney bean” on account of its growing only on low bushes and needing no support for the vines. In this variety the pods hang in thick clusters, the lower ends often touching the ground.

Butter Beans.

—There is another large class of beans known as butter beans. This variety is also known as Geneva, or plainpalais, or wax bean.

Lima Beans.

—The Lima bean is also a different botanical species known as Phaseolus lunatus L. It is nearly related to the kidney bean, being also a native of South America. The vine is a very long one, often reaching more than 10 feet if a proper support be offered it. The common Lima bean is one which matures rather late in the season, but it is most highly valued for its product, which is eaten shelled. There are smaller varieties of this bean known as the dwarf Lima or small Lima.

The total number of varieties of beans which are known and cultivated is, perhaps, more than 100, but they belong in general to the large classes specified.

Average Composition of Green, String, and Lima Beans.—

Lima beans:
Water,	68.46	percent
Ash,	1.69	„
Protein,	7.15	„
Crude fiber,	1.71	„
Carbohydrates,	20.30	„
Fat,	.69	„
String beans:
Water,	87.23	percent
Ash,	.76	„
Protein,	2.20	„
Crude fiber,	1.92	„
Carbohydrates,	7.52	„
Fat,	.37	„

The above data are for green Lima beans with the pod removed and for string beans including the pod. The latter, it is seen, are composed largely of water, containing less than 13 percent of dry matter. Of the dry matter almost 20 percent is protein. The soluble carbohydrates, including the starch and sugar, are the most important of the ingredients of the dry substance in so far as actual weight is concerned. In the Lima bean the protein is more than three times as great as in the string bean, and the starch and sugar almost three times as much. As a nutrient, therefore, the Lima beans are far more valuable than the string beans. These data may be taken as representative of all varieties of green beans, hulled and unhulled, the Lima beans being types of hulled beans and the string variety being the type of beans including the pod.

Composition of the Dry Bean.—

Water,	15.86	percent.
Ash,	3.53	„
Protein,	20.57	„
Fiber,	3.86	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	55.49	„
Fat,	.69	„

The analyses show that the dry bean is much richer in protein than the cereals.

Beets.

—All the varieties of edible beets belong to the common species Beta vulgaris L. French, betterave; German, Salat-Rübe; Dutch, Betwortel; Italian, barbabietola; Spanish, remolacha.

The most important of these beets, economically, is the variety which has been cultivated for the purpose of producing sugar. By long years of selection and improvement the sugar content of the natural beet, which is not more than from four to six percent, has been brought up to an average of about 14 percent, often reaching much larger quantities. The sugar beet itself, in its earlier stages, makes an excellent vegetable for the table, being particularly sweet and palatable. Its tannin content, however, is very high, and before cooking, especially, it has quite a bitter taste, at times. This disappears in the young beets when they are cooked. The sugar beet has a perfectly white flesh, inasmuch as the attempt was made in the early period of cultivation to develop a beet without color in order to produce a white sugar with as little trouble as possible. On the other hand the garden beet is usually highly colored, the red beet being especially prized. The number of varieties of beets in cultivation is very great. Among the most important may be mentioned the long blood-red beet, which is the common garden beet, the rough-skinned red beet, the pear-shaped beet, the turnip-shaped beet, all of which are of the red color. There is also cultivated for eating purposes a beet with yellow flesh, though it is not by any means so common as the red garden beet.

Composition of the Beet.

—The following data represents the average composition of the red beet used as a vegetable:

Water	88.47	percent
Ash,	1.04	„
Protein,	1.53	„
Fiber,	.88	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	7.94	„
Fat,	.14	„

The above data show that the average garden beet has a little less than 12 percent of solid matter and a little more than 88 percent of water. It is rather poor in protein, though it is not a vegetable which can be classed as being excessively deficient in nitrogenous constituents. Its chief food value, however, is in the sugar which it contains, which is more than 7 percent. It is quite deficient in fat.

Brussels Sprouts.

—Brussels sprouts is a variety of cabbage which is grown over large areas in different countries and has a deservedly high reputation on the table. The French name is chou de Bruxelles; German, Brüsseler Sprossen-Kohl; Italian, cavolo a germoglio; Spanish, bretones de Bruselas. The composition of Brussels sprouts is practically the same as that of cabbage.

Cabbage.

—The botanical name of the cabbage is Brassica oleracea L. and it belongs to the family Brassicaceæ. It is a plant which is indigenous to both Europe and Asia, and still grows wild in some parts of the European continent. It is eaten both raw, in the form of salad, slaw, etc., and cooked in various methods. It is also subjected to a fermentation, producing the highly prized dish known as sauer-kraut. Its French name is chou cabus; German, Kopfkohl; Italian, cavolo cappuccio; Spanish, col repollo.

The cabbage is a plant which, as it approaches maturity, has its leaves folded upon each other in a solid mass, producing the head. These leaves naturally become bleached and are extremely crisp and tender. The external, free leaves are not prized as a food. The varieties of the cabbage are almost legion and are produced by different methods of cultivation.

Composition.—

Water,	90.52	percent
Ash,	1.40	„
Protein,	2.39	„
Fiber,	1.47	„
Starch, sugar, etc.,	3.85	„
Fat,	.37	„

The above data show that cabbage is composed chiefly of water, amounting to as much as 91 percent of its weight. Its principal food constituents are starch, sugar, and digestible fiber. Its most valuable food constituent is most probably the protein, of which it contains a large proportionate quantity. In all its forms cabbage is a wholesome, if not very nutritious, dish.

Carrot.

—The botanical name of the carrot is Daucus carota L. French, carotte; German, Mohre; Italian, carota; Spanish, zanahoria.

This plant is indigenous to Europe. The carrot is naturally a biennial plant, though it is often produced in a single season, and especial efforts are made to produce quick-growing carrots. This vegetable is much more common in Europe than in the United States, and when grown here at all it is used chiefly in soups and often for cattle food. There is a large number of varieties of carrots, but practically all belong to the same botanical species. The flesh is often of a yellow tint, though blood-red carrots are grown and highly prized.

Composition.—

Water,	88.59	percent
Ash,	1.02	„
Protein,	1.14	„
Fiber,	1.27	„
Starch, sugar, etc.,	7.56	„
Fat,	.42	„

It is seen from the above data that the carrot has almost exactly the composition of the garden beet. Its principal food value is in the sugar and other carbohydrates which it contains. It also has a notable proportion of protein and has almost 12 percent of solid matter.

Cauliflower.

—Cauliflower is a variety of cabbage the edible portion of which is the extraordinarily modified and thickened flower cluster. It is more tender and delicate in its structure than the common cabbage. The French name is choufleur; German, Blumenkohl; Italian, cavolfiore; Spanish, coliflor.

It is highly prized when prepared for the table with a sauce. It is a dish which is much more common in Europe than in this country, where it is not appreciated as it should be. There is a large number of varieties produced, chiefly by the different methods of cultivation and the effect of environment in which they are grown.

Composition.—

Water,	90.82	percent
Ash,	.81	„
Protein,	1.62	„
Fiber,	1.02	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	4.94	„
Fat,	.79	„

The cauliflower is very close to the cabbage in composition, having, however, a slightly larger proportion of digestible carbohydrates and a much larger proportion of fat. Its dietetic value, however, is not notably different from that of the cabbage.

Celery.

—One of the most important vegetables upon the table in this country is celery. The botanical name of celery is Apium graveolens L. The French name is celeri; German, Sellerie; Italian, sedano; Spanish, apio.

Celery is indigenous to Europe. It is eaten in its young state, and is most valued when the stalks are bleached. This is accomplished by hilling up the earth around them or protecting them from the light by boards or otherwise. Kept in the dark in this way the green color fades and the stalks becomes more crisp and brittle. There is a number of varieties of celery, and these are chiefly due to the different methods of cultivation. Celery is not only eaten raw but also stewed and is a common constituent of soup. Celery seeds are supposed to have not only a condimental but a medicinal value.

Chicory.

—The botanical name of chicory is Cichorium intybus L. In French it is called chicorée sauvage; German, wilde or bittere Chichorie; Italian, cicoria selvatica; Spanish, achicoria amarga o agreste.

The wild chicory is used chiefly, even in its cultivated state, for salad purposes, the roots not being of any value on account of their smallness. The chicory, however, develops under cultivation a large root like the carrot or turnip, and this variety of chicory is used chiefly on account of the roots, which, when they are roasted properly, are highly prized as a substitute for coffee. The common wild chicory has been used from time immemorial as a salad. The leaves have rather a bitter taste and are more highly prized for salad purposes when mixed with lettuce or other leaves which have a less pronounced flavor. The variety of chicory of which the roots are used as a substitute for coffee is known as “Brunswick chicory,” or Magdeburg large-rooted chicory.

Composition of the Root.—

Water,	79.20	percent
Ash,	1.11	„
Sugars,	.60	„
Inulin,	14.00	„
Fiber,	1.29	„
Protein and undetermined,	3.50	„

Starch does not appear to be among the carbohydrates in chicory but inulin takes its place. In this respect chicory resembles the artichoke in its composition.

Roasted Chicory.

—When chicory is used as a substitute for coffee or as a substance added to coffee it is roasted, and its composition is thus materially changed, as is represented by the following data:

Moisture,	13.3	percent
Ash,	5.9	„
Sugar,	12.4	„
Inulin,	4.3	„
Fiber,	6.9	„
Caramel and undetermined,	57.2	„

From the data of the above analysis the inulin does not appear to have been very largely converted into levulose by roasting, but rather into the insoluble carbohydrate matter. Whether or not, therefore, the inulin exists in the large proportion given in the analysis of the fresh chicory is a matter of some doubt.

Cranberry.

—The cranberry is grown extensively in the swampy grounds of the northern part of the United States, especially in New England, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. It is a red, hard berry, not at all pleasant to the taste in its fresh state, very acid, but greatly valued during the autumn and winter months when stewed with sugar and served as a sauce, especially with turkey. Its chief use, in fact, is to eat with turkey or chicken. The cranberry is a fruit which contains naturally a small quantity of benzoic acid.

Composition.—

Water,	86.10	percent
Solids,	13.90	„
Soluble solids,	8.43	„
Acidity,	1.98	„
(Measured as grams of sulfuric acid per 100 grams of material.)

Cress.

—The botanical name of cress is Lepidium sativum L. French, cresson alenois; German, Garten-Kresse; Italian, agretto; Spanish, mastuerzo.

It is a plant which is indigenous to Persia. It grows in this country in moist gardens and particularly in the warmer parts of the country. The real water cress belongs to a different species, its botanical name being Rorippa nasturtium. It grows only in water, in which it differs from the preceding variety. It is highly prized as an aromatic flavoring material and for table use. There are very many varieties in cultivation.

Cucumbers.

—The botanical name of cucumber is Cucumis sativus L. French, concombre; German, Gurke; Italian, cetriulo; Spanish, cohombro.

The cucumber is indigenous to East India, but is now cultivated in all countries. It is a plant which develops vines which often run to great distances. The cucumber is used almost exclusively in its green state, and the very young cucumbers are most highly prized for making pickles, though all sizes are used for that purpose, from the very smallest to the giant variety. The number of varieties cultivated is extremely great. The variety known as the gherkin is highly prized for pickling.

Composition of the Cucumber.—

Water,	95.99	percent
Ash,	.46	„
Protein,	.81	„
Fiber,	.69	„
Starch, sugar, etc.,	1.83	„
Fat,	.22	„

The above data show that the cucumber is not much more than solid water, there being just enough of other material to give it a flavor and consistence.

Egg Plant.

—Another vegetable which is highly prized for the table is the egg plant, Solanum melongena L. French, aubergine; German, Eierpflanze; Italian, petronciano; Spanish, berengena.

The egg plant is indigenous to India. Its name is derived from the shape of some of its varieties, though many of them have ceased to resemble the egg in appearance. There is a large number of varieties, but the one which is known as the white egg plant looks more like an egg both in shape and color than most of the others.

Composition.—

Water,	92.93	percent
Ash,	.50	„
Protein,	1.15	„
Fiber,	.77	„
Starch, sugar, etc.,	4.34	„
Fat,	.31	„

The egg plant is a highly succulent vegetable containing only a little more than 7 percent of solid matter, and this is chiefly sugar, starch, and other digestible carbohydrates.

Garlic.

—The botanical name of garlic is Allium sativum L. French, ail ordinaire; German, Gewöhnlicher Knoblauch; Italian, aglio; Spanish, ajo vulgar.

This highly prized aromatic vegetable is indigenous to southern Europe. It is a perennial plant, and the edible bulbous portion grows chiefly underground. This part is used for spicing food. It is eaten in large quantities by the Latin nations of southern Europe, and is employed throughout the world as a seasoning or flavoring for many dishes. When eaten in excess it makes the breath extremely disagreeable, as can be witnessed by all who have traveled in the Latin countries of Europe and even among the South Germans. Garlic is not eaten to any extent by our native citizens, but is used by our first-class cooks extensively as a seasoning. A little of it is known to go a great way. Its composition is very much like that of the onion. A wild garlic grows in the United States over wide areas. It is often eaten by cows, and it imparts to the milk a very disagreeable flavor and smell.

Gourds.

—Gourds themselves are not very much used for edible purposes, but the varieties which include all the species of pumpkin and squash belong to the important vegetable foods in the United States. The most important member of this family is the pumpkin, Cucurbita pepo L., which grows often to an enormous size and has a beautiful yellow color. The French name for the pumpkin is potirons; German, Melonen oder Centner Kurbiss; Italian, zucca; Spanish, calabaza totanera.

The pumpkin of California, especially, is noted for its gigantic proportions. The pumpkin is used very extensively in New England, as well as other parts of the country, for making pies, and is also used as a sauce. The pumpkin is not eaten raw. As a cattle food it is highly prized in all parts of the country, and when fed to milch cows it imparts to the butter, even in the winter, a delicate amber tint.

Composition of the Flesh of the Pumpkin.—

Water,	93.39	percent
Ash,	.67	„
Protein,	.91	„
Fiber,	.98	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	3.93	„
Fat,	.12	„

It is seen that the flesh of the pumpkin is essentially a watery food, the chief ingredient of the solid matter being sugar. Its value, therefore, as a food is more condimental than nutritive.

Horse-radish.

—The botanical name of horse-radish is Cochlearia armoracia L. French, raifort sauvage; German, Meerettig; Italian, rafano; Spanish, taramago.

The horse-radish is prized as one of the principal condimental vegetable substances in common use in the United States. It is particularly used with oysters and other foods of similar character and as a sauce or spice in a salad. It is indigenous to Europe, but is now cultivated everywhere. There are many varieties, but they are all characterized by a sharp, pungent taste and odor.

Adulteration of Horse-radish.

—Other vegetable substances, as, for instance, the more highly spiced aromatic turnips, are often substituted for horse-radish.

Jerusalem Artichoke.

—This is a plant of the aster family (Helianthus tuberosus L.) producing a heavy ovoid head the fleshy parts of which, including the base to which they are attached, are highly valued as food, being usually eaten with a sauce. This plant is more largely cultivated in France and other European countries than in the United States.

Kale.

—Kale is a variety of cabbage which is somewhat different botanically from the common cabbage. This form of cabbage does not make a firm head, but grows only with free leaves. It is especially adapted for use in much the same manner as the common substance known by the housewife as greens. It is a hardy plant and grows well even in cold climates. There are a great many varieties of kale, and the composition is practically that of the cabbage.

Leek.

—The leek is of the same variety of plant as the garlic. Its botanical name is Allium porrum L. French, poireau; German, Lauch; Italian, porro; Spanish, puerro.

The leek is thought to be indigenous to Switzerland, though this is not quite certain. It is closely related to the garlic and onion and is valued for the same purposes, namely, its highly aromatic condimental character.

Lettuce.

—Among the most valued of the succulent vegetables is the lettuce. Its botanical name is Lactuca sativa L. French, laitue cultivée; German, Lattich; Italian, lattuga; Spanish, lechuga.

Lettuce is thought to be indigenous to India or Central Asia. It has been cultivated, however, for so long that its origin is a matter of doubt. There is a legion of varieties of lettuce, but they all have essentially the same characteristics and have little food value. Lettuce is now found practically throughout the whole year in all civilized countries, being grown under glass in winter so as to furnish a continuous supply for the markets throughout the year. It is used chiefly as salad, and among the varieties which are most highly prized for this purpose are the cabbage lettuce and the variety known as Romaine. The Romaine is distinguished from the common lettuce by the shape of the leaves, which are much longer and narrower than those of ordinary lettuce. The Romaine lettuce is more highly prized by most connoisseurs as being more tender and brittle than the first variety.

Composition.—

Water,	93.68	percent
Ash,	1.61	„
Protein,	1.41	„
Fiber,	.74	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	2.18	„
Fat,	.38	„

The data show that lettuce is a highly succulent vegetable. Its chief food constituents are protein and sugar. Its real value as a food is not shown by chemical analysis because it consists in a delicate, aromatic flavor which is not revealed by the crucible.

Melons.

—There are two kinds of melons eaten in the United States,—the first the watermelon, and the second the cantaloupe or muskmelon. In Europe the principal melon which is used is one having deep yellow flesh resembling the color of a pumpkin and known as the French melon. The botanical name is Cucumis melo L. French, melon; German, Melone; Italian, popone; Spanish, melon.

The French melon is indigenous to Asia, but only the cultivated varieties are known now. The flesh is very sweet and is, as has already been said, usually of a deep yellow color, though there are many different varieties.

Cantaloupe.

—This is a general name given to the melons of the French type or varieties thereof growing in the United States. It is supposed to have had its origin in Italy, though its history is so old as not to be certain. The cantaloupe is of various sizes and shapes and various degrees of sweetness. In the United States the variety grown at Rocky Ford, Colorado, is noted for its sweetness and general palatability. For this reason many melons not grown at Rocky Ford are improperly sold under that name. There are a great many varieties of cantaloupes. Generally the flesh of the cantaloupe is green instead of yellow. The cantaloupe is often called muskmelon.

ANALYSIS OF JUICE OF MUSKMELONS.

From Rind of Melon.
Series No.	Brix.	Nitro- gen.	Ash.	Su- crose.	Re- ducing Sugar.
		Percent.	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.
495,	11.5	.106	1.23	3.99	3.97
554,	8.4	.018	0.66	2.47	3.62
587,	5.0	.053	0.47	2.25	2.84
613,	10.3	.156	0.93	2.77	3.64
Average,	8.8	.083	0.82	2.87	3.52
Juice of Edible Portion of Melon.
Series No.	Brix.	Nitro- gen.	Ash.	Su- crose.	Re- ducing Sugar.
		Percent.	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.
495,	12.9	.130	1.20	6.60	2.88
554,	8.2	.069	0.87	4.96	2.47
587,	5.8	.043	0.50	2.26	2.57
623,	11.5	.134	0.95	5.19	2.25
Average,	9.6	.094	0.88	4.75	2.54

Watermelons.

—This is an entirely different variety from the French melon or cantaloupe. Its botanical name is Citrullus citrullus L. French, melon d’eau; German, Wasser-Melone; Italian, cocomero, Spanish, sandia.

The watermelon is said to be indigenous to Africa. It is grown extensively in the United States, especially in the southern part. It is a field crop of considerable importance, especially in the state of Georgia. The watermelon grows best on a sandy soil, though it requires it to be well fertilized. The vines, when they reach their full growth, cover the entire field. The melons often grow to a very large size,—specimens weighing from 50 to 60 pounds being not unusual. The average size, however, is much less than that. The Georgia melon is somewhat oval in shape, reaching generally from a foot to eighteen inches in length and from a foot to fifteen inches in diameter. The flesh is generally red and the seeds usually black. The watermelon is in the market from early summer until the late autumn. It bears shipping quite well, and is sent usually in box cars without crating, and, if kept at a low temperature, will remain palatable for many days or even weeks. The fresh ripe melon, however, is far superior in quality to any that are harvested partly green and kept for a long time. About forty or fifty varieties of watermelons grow in the United States.

Composition of Melons.

—The following data show the composition of the flesh of the muskmelon and the watermelon:

Muskmelon:
Water,	89.50	percent
Ash,	.60	„
Protein,	.60	„
Fiber,	.92	„
Starch, sugar, etc.,	8.20	„
Fat,	.18	„
Watermelon:
Water,	91.87	percent
Ash,	.33	„
Protein,	.40	„
Fiber,	.55	„
Starch, sugar, etc.,	6.65	„
Fat,	.20	„

The above data show that the edible portion of the muskmelon contains more nutrient matter than that of the watermelon, the difference being chiefly in the content of water and carbohydrates.

Okra.

—The French name for okra is gombo; Italian, ibisco; Spanish, gombo.

Okra is a vegetable grown very largely in the United States and especially valued for use in soup making. For this purpose the young seed-vessels are employed. The seed pods of the okra are long, tapering, and rigid by reason of quite sharp angles. The okra is often known as gombo or gumbo.

Composition.—

Water,	87.41	percent
Ash,	.74	„
Protein,	1.99	„
Fiber,	3.42	„
Starch, sugar, etc.,	6.04	„
Fat,	.40	„

Onion.

—The botanical name of the onion is Allium cepa L. The French name is ognon; German, Zwiebel; Italian, cipolla; Spanish, cebolla.

The onion is a plant which is valued for edible purposes throughout the whole world. It is supposed to have been indigenous to Asia, but its exact origin is not known with certainty. Both the pulp and the part of the stem immediately attached thereto are edible. In fact in very young plants the whole plant is edible. Its highly aromatic character and flavor rather than its nutritive qualities give it its chief value. The onion is eaten both raw and in various cooked forms. Cooking the onion, especially boiling, expels a large part of its most pungent character, so that the cooked onion does not manifest itself so unpleasantly in the breath when eaten as is the case with the raw onion. The onion is also very commonly eaten in this country fried, especially with beefsteak. The variety of onions cultivated is legion, but they are due rather to different methods of cultivation, etc., than to botanical character.

Composition.—

Water,	87.55	percent
Ash,	.57	„
Protein,	1.40	„
Fiber,	.69	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	9.53	„
Fat,	.26	„

The onion, it is seen, is rather poor in protein but rich in sugar and allied bodies.

Parsnips.

—The botanical name of the parsnip is Pastinaca sativa L. French, panais; German, Pastinake; Italian, pastinaca; Spanish, chirivia.

The parsnip is nearly related to the carrot in its appearance and also its properties. The root is usually long and straight and gradually tapering. It, however, often has other shapes, as is the case with the carrot and beet.

Composition.—

Water,	80.34	percent
Ash,	1.03	„
Protein,	1.35	„
Fiber,	.53	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	16.09	„
Fat,	.66	„

The above data show that the parsnip is not much richer in nutrients than most of the roots grown, except in sugar and starch content. The large quantity of carbohydrates gives it its chief food value. These carbohydrates are not by any means all sugar and starch, but include a very considerable proportion of cellulose which is more or less digestible.

Peas.

—The botanical name of the pea plant is Pisum sativum L. French pois; German, Erbse; Italian, pisello; Spanish, guisante.

The pea is quite as highly valued for table use as the bean, and, perhaps, is almost as extensively cultivated. The pea, however, is not usually eaten in the pod. It is probably indigenous to Central Europe, but has been so long cultivated that an exact history of its original distribution is not known. There are many different varieties of the pea, but the one most highly prized is a small and very sweet pea. The larger variety does not have the palatability and other highly prized edible qualities that distinguish the smaller variety. The pea is found in the markets of the United States throughout the whole year, being grown under cover in the winter time. It becomes an abundant crop from early in the spring until very late in the autumn. Immense quantities of peas are preserved by canning, and in this condition they retain their edible properties almost without impairment throughout the entire winter. The pea is valued as a food in many forms.

Composition.—

	Water.	Ash.	Protein.	Fiber.	Starch, Sugar, etc.	Fat.
	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.
Green pea,	79.93	.78	3.87	1.63	13.30	.49
Dry pea,	12.62	3.11	27.04	3.90	51.75	1.58

The above data show that the pea is a markedly nitrogenous food, especially the dry pea. Even in the green pea nearly four percent of its weight is protein.

A comparison of the composition of the pea with that of the bean shows that the pea is even more nitrogenous in character than the bean.

Potatoes.

—One of the most important vegetables as well as food products in general is that class of products to which the term potato is given. The term strictly should apply only to that class known as white or Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). The potato, as indicated by the name, belongs to a family of plants which is considered poisonous, but in the cultivated variety the poisonous principle has been practically eliminated. The potato belongs, essentially, to the starchy group of foods. If we assume, which is very nearly correct, that the average content of water in different varieties of potatoes at the time they are most suitable for edible purposes is 80 percent, it is found that at least three-fourths of the remaining solid dry matter is starch. The potato contains a trace of sugar and notable quantities of other carbohydrates than starch and sugar, namely, fiber. It also contains a very small proportion of nitrogen and mineral matter.

The potato is grown chiefly in temperate climates. It flourishes particularly well in the northern part of Europe, in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in the northern portion of the United States. The northern part of Maine, especially, is noted for the production of potatoes of high edible qualities. It grows very well also in the southern part of the United States. The potato may be produced from seed, but that method of propagation has long since ceased to be practiced for agricultural purposes. The potatoes of commerce are produced from the eyes of the tubers. The best results in the growth of potatoes are secured in the loose somewhat sandy soil into which the roots of the plant can easily penetrate and which gives way readily to make place for the growing tuber. Hard, clay soils are unsuited to the growth of this vegetable. The planting is accomplished in the early spring after a thorough preparation of the seed bed by plowing to the usual depth, often subsoiling and reducing the surface of the soil to the proper tilth. The cuttings of potatoes or the whole potatoes are planted in rows to a depth of two or three inches, where they may sprout and even reach the surface at a temperature which at times may fall below the frost point on the surface of the soil. The leaf of the potato, when it has once appeared above the surface of the soil, is very susceptible to the action of frost. If killed at an early stage it may grow again without replanting. The potato is a crop which the farmer may plant early in the spring. There are other varieties which are planted later, even in the middle of summer, and produce good results. The planting season may continue over a period of two or three months. During the growth of the crop by the cultivation of the soil the surface is kept in good tilth, the weeds and grass prevented from growing, and the soil gradually drawn up around the growing tubers with the hoe or plow in the form of ridges. This heaping up of the soil tends to promote the development of the tubers, affording them a loose and more abundant bedding and a greater supply of plant food.

The greatest enemies to which the potato crop is obnoxious are found in the various forms of the potato bug (Doryphora decemlineata), which feed upon their leaves. To prevent the ravages of these insects it becomes necessary to dust over the leaves of the growing plants some powerful insecticide which will destroy the life of the insects feeding upon them. The active ingredient of these insecticides is usually arsenic. Fortunately the growing tuber does not absorb, so far as known, even traces of arsenic, or at least not more than the merest trace, which may be used for insecticidal purposes. It is quite impossible in most localities to secure a crop of potatoes without such treatment. The alternative is a constant inspection of the growing plant and the removal and killing of the bugs as they appear, but this is only practicable over very small areas as its general application would increase the cost of the product beyond the reach of the average consumer.

Yield.

—Potatoes are produced in every state and territory of the United States. The statistics for the year ended December 31, 1905, show that the total area devoted to potatoes in the United States is 2,996,757 acres. The largest area in any one State is found in New York, namely, 428,986 acres, and the smallest area, aside from Arizona, not reported, is found in New Mexico, namely, 1,470 acres. The yield of potatoes for the year is given as 260,741,294 bushels. The largest total yield was in New York, the average yield per acre for the country being 87 bushels. The largest yield per acre is reported from Maine, namely, 175 bushels, and the smallest from Louisiana and Texas, namely, 64 bushels per acre. The average price per bushel for the whole country at the farm is 61.7 cents, making the total value of the crop $160,821,080. The highest price per bushel was obtained in Florida, namely, $1.20, and the lowest price per bushel in Nebraska, namely, 37 cents. The weight of a bushel of potatoes is 60 pounds. As the average amount of fermentable matter in potatoes grown in the United States is 20 percent, the total weight of fermentable matter in a bushel of potatoes is 12 pounds, which would yield approximately 6 pounds or 3.6 quarts of alcohol.

Composition.—Starch content:

The quantity of starch in American grown potatoes varies from 15 to 20 percent. Probably 18 percent might be stated as the general average of the best grades of potatoes. In this connection it must be remembered that at the present time potatoes are grown in the United States chiefly for table use. Generally, only the imperfect or injured samples are used for stock feeding or for starch making, and this condition will probably continue as long as good edible potatoes bring a higher price for table use than can be obtained by utilizing them for starch or for feeding purposes.

Under the microscope the granules of potato starch have a distinctive appearance. They appear as egg-shaped bodies on which, especially the larger ones, various ring-like lines are seen. With a modified (polarized) light under certain conditions of observation a black cross is developed upon the granule. It is not difficult for an expert microscopist to distinguish potato from other forms of starch by its appearance, which is well shown in [Figs. 39] and [40]. Many of the granules are quite large, and most of them are ovoid in shape.

The quantity of protein in the potato is quite low compared with that of cereal foods; in round numbers it may be said to be 2.5 percent. The potato contains very little material which is capable of fermentation aside from starch and sugars.

Sugar content:

Although the potato is not sweet to the taste in a fresh state, it contains notable quantities of sugar. This sugar is lost whenever the potato is used for starch-making purposes, but is utilized when it is used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol. The percentage of sugar of all kinds in the potato rarely goes above 1 percent. The average quantity is probably not far from 0.35 percent, including sugar, reducing sugar, and dextrin, all of which are soluble in water. In the treatment of potatoes for starch making therefore it may be estimated that 0.35 percent of fermentable matter is lost in the wash water.

One German author, Saare, claims to have found much larger quantities of sugar in potatoes than those just mentioned. The minimum quantity found by this author is 0.4 percent, and the maximum 3.4 percent, giving a mean of 1.9 percent. Ten varieties of potatoes used for the manufacture of industrial alcohol were examined in the securing of these data. It appears that some varieties have a greater tendency to produce sugar than others. The German variety known as “Daber” contains the smallest quantities of sugar, while the variety known as “Juno” contains the largest quantities. The percentages of sugar, as reported by Saare, however, are larger than those reported by other observers, and probably are larger than are usually found.

Fig. 39.—Potato Starch (× 200).—(Courtesy Bureau of Chemistry.)

Fig. 40.—Potato Starch under Polarized Light (× 200).—(Courtesy Bureau of Chemistry.)

Average composition:

Frazier, of the Cornell station, has collected analyses of a large number of different varieties of potatoes, and finds them to have the following average composition:

Water,	75.00	percent
Starch,	19.87	„
Sugars and dextrin,	.77	„
Fat,	.08	„
Cellulose,	.33	„
Ash,	1.00	„

The following analyses show in detail the composition of potatoes from different localities:

Analysis of Maine potatoes:

The Bureau of Chemistry a few years ago made an investigation in connection with the experiment station in Maine of the composition of potatoes grown in that state used for table purposes and for starch making. Some of the best varieties grown in different parts of the state were subjected to analysis, and the following results show them to be of quite uniform composition:

Analyses of Maine Potatoes.[29]

Variety.	Water.	Starch.	Fiber.	Protein (Nitrogen × 6.25).	Ash.	Specific Gravity.
	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.
Hebron,	79.72	16.94	0.90	2.12	0.76	1.0604
Do.	78.13	18.59	.72	2.06	.78	1.0795
White Elephant,	76.81	19.96	.84	2.19	.99	1.0867
Do.	76.92	20.38	.90	2.31	.87	1.0742
Do.	78.74	15.96	.64	2.25	.92	1.0803
Do.	75.21	19.31	.61	2.12	.83	1.1058
Do.	75.88	18.81	.56	2.25	.96	1.0921
Do.	77.44	18.12	.63	2.06	.88	1.0906
Do.	75.56	18.14	.56	1.81	1.04	1.1129
Do.	78.13	18.62	.63	1.75	.98	1.0881
Delaware,	76.02	19.20	.61	2.06	1.01	1.0852
Do.	76.93	18.63	.61	2.19	.94	1.0904
Do.	75.72	18.63	.55	2.31	.95	1.0745
Do.	77.64	16.26	.61	2.56	.91	1.1120
Carmen,	76.87	18.03	.66	2.06	.90	1.0967
Do.	76.57	17.07	.59	2.38	.76	1.0804
Average,	77.02	18.29	.66	2.16	.91	1.0881

[29] Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 57, p. 147.

Analysis of Vermont potatoes:

Analyses made in Vermont and published in the report of the Vermont Experiment Station for 1901 show an average content of starch considerably less than that above given, namely:

Water,	79.41	percent
Starch,	14.51	„
Sugars and dextrins,	1.44	„
Cellulose,	.36	„
Protein,	2.28	„
Ether extract,	.06	„
Ash,	1.26	„
Undetermined,	.68	„

Composition of Potatoes used in France for Industrial Purposes.

—The following is regarded in France as an average composition of the potato suitable for industrial purposes:[30]

Water,	71.00	percent
Starch,	18.00	„
Sugar, etc.,	1.06	„
Cellulose,	1.65	„
Protein,	2.12	„
Fat,	.11	„
Ash,	1.60	„

[30] “Encyclopédie Agricole,” E. Saillard.

The total fermentable matter, as seen above, is a little over 19 percent, not allowing anything for the cellulose which is fermented. As a portion of the cellulose may also become a source of alcohol, it is observed that the average percentage of fermented matter in the French potato used for industrial purposes is not far from 20 percent.

The following varieties show a variation in starch content of 6.8 percent, the minimum being 15.9 and the maximum 22.7 percent:

Red starchy,	22.7	percent	of starch
Shaw,	20.5	„	„
Institute of Beauvais,	17.7	„	„
Kernours,	17.9	„	„
White Elephant,	16.0	„	„
British Red,	16.0	„	„
Giant Blue,	15.9	„	„

Analysis of Potatoes from German Sources.—Average composition and starch content:

The content of starch in potatoes examined in the laboratory of the Association of German Spirit Manufacturers during the year 1905 varied from 12.1 to 25.1 percent. Eleven percent of the total number examined contained between 12 and 14 percent of starch, 20 percent between 14 and 16 percent of starch, 13 percent between 16 and 18 percent of starch, 24 percent between 18 and 20 percent, 24 percent also between 20 and 22 percent, and 8 percent between 22 and 25.1 percent.

These data show that 56 percent of the total number of samples examined contained between 18 and 25 percent of starch. It is evident, therefore, that the general average content of starch in the potatoes used in the German distilleries is not far from 18 to 20 percent.

The mean composition of potatoes as given by three German authorities, namely, König, Lintner, and Wolff, is as follows:

Average Analysis of Potatoes by Three German Authorities.

Constituent.	König.	Lintner.	Wolff.
	Percent.	Percent.	Percent.
Water,	75.48	76.0	75.0
Protein,	1.95	2.1	2.1
Fat,	.15	.2	.2
Starch and sugar,	20.69	19.7	20.7
Crude cellulose,	.75	.8	1.1
Ash,	.98	1.2	.9

The above data show the average content of fermentable matter in German potatoes, as determined by three of their leading authorities, to be about 20 percent. The potatoes used for the manufacture of alcohol in Germany are not of the variety raised for edible purposes. In a large number of experiment stations in Germany systematic efforts have been made for many years to grow a potato rich in starch without respect to its edible qualities. These potatoes are coarser in structure and less palatable than those grown for the table. The object of the cultivation of this class of potatoes is to produce as much starch and other fermentable matters per acre as possible. It is evident that our own experiment stations should undertake work of a similar character if the potato is to be used to any great extent in the manufacture of industrial alcohol. There is no doubt of the fact that success equal to that attained by the German experimenters will attend any systematic efforts of this kind in our country. Not only will larger crops per acre of potatoes be grown, but these potatoes will contain larger quantities of starch and other fermentable substances. If the crop of potatoes is to remain at the present average, namely, less than 100 bushels per acre, profitable returns for alcohol making can not be expected, either by the farmer or by the manufacturer. A much larger quantity must be grown and, if possible, at less expense, in order that encouraging profits may be realized.

Maercker, one of the most celebrated of German authors, states that in certain instances the potato in Germany reaches a very high starch content. Some varieties, in exceptional instances, have shown as high as 29.4 percent, 28.1 percent, and 27.3 percent, respectively. In warm, dry seasons potatoes often are found containing from 25 to 27 percent of starch. According to Maercker, the sugar content, including all forms of sugar, varies greatly. Perfectly ripe potatoes contain generally no sugar or only a fractional percentage. When potatoes are stored under unfavorable conditions, large quantities of sugar may be developed, amounting to as high as 5 percent altogether. In general, it may be stated that the content of sugar of all kinds will vary from 0.4 percent to 3.4 percent, according to conditions.

While potatoes grown thus to increase the content of starch are not generally used as food, yet they are nutritious but not as palatable as those grown especially for table purposes.

Ash analyses:

The mineral matters which the potato extracts from the soil or from the fertilizers which are added thereto consist chiefly of phosphate of potash. The mean average composition of the ash of the potato is shown in the following table:[31]

Potash (K₂O),	60.37	percent
Soda (Na₂O),	2.62	„
Lime (CaO),	2.57	„
Magnesia (MgO),	4.69	„
Iron oxid (Fe₂O₃),	1.18	„
Phosphoric acid (P₂O₅),	17.33	„
Sulfuric acid (SO₃),	6.49	„
Silicic acid (SiO₂),	2.13	„
Chlorin,	3.11	„

[31] Maercker, “Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation,” p. 99.

This analysis was made upon the so-called pure ash, deprived of its unburned carbon, and freed of sand and carbon dioxid.

Effect of fertilization on the yield and starch content:

Experience in Germany has shown not only that liberal fertilization with nitrogen is favorable to the production of a large crop of potatoes, but also that this is accomplished without decreasing the percentage of starch therein. The following table shows the increase in yield, percentage of starch, and amount of starch obtained by nitrogen fertilization, the results being expressed in hectares[32] and kilograms:

Effect of Nitrogen Fertilization on Yield and Starch Content of Potatoes.

Variety of Potato.	Without Nitrogen.			With Nitrogen.
Variety of Potato.	Starch.	Yield of tubers per hectare.	Yield of starch per hectare.	Starch.	Yield of tubers per hectare.	Yield of starch per hectare.
	Percent.	Kilograms.	Kilograms.	Percent.	Kilograms.	Kilograms.
Seed,	18.01	20,900	3,780	18.17	24,870	4,507
Champion,	21.33	19,510	4,152	21.48	24,470	5,233
Imperator,	19.00	22,560	4,235	18.70	26,830	5,007
Magnum Bonum,	18.41	19,170	3,522	18.07	22,510	4,057
Aurelie,	19.47	18,950	3,653	19.75	23,550	4,609
Reichskanzler,	22.78	14,300	3,236	22.61	17,250	3,875
Juno,	19.33	17,590	3,422	19.92	20,900	4,199
Amaranth,	22.47	16,180	3,619	22.84	18,310	4,188
Charlotte,	19.42	17,041	3,305	19.67	20,774	4,081
Gelbfleischige Zwiebel,	19.97	19,888	3,946	19.91	21,772	4,323
Dabersche,	21.82	17,377	3,778	21.80	20,313	4,399
Weissfleischige Zwiebel,	20.51	16,877	3,442	20.58	19,501	3,936
Schneerose,	18.84	19,653	3,724	18.66	22,343	4,186
Nassengrunder,	19.08	19,701	3,725	22.12	21,889	4,813
Gelbe Rose,	21.09	16,847	3,547	20.60	20,177	4,129
Hortensie,	17.72	22,416	3,907	17.45	26,381	4,532
Richter’s Lange Weisse,	19.37	22,134	4,267	19.19	24,490	4,664
Rosalie,	18.27	19,866	3,557	18.25	22,186	4,003
Achilles,	21.02	18,886	3,962	20.93	20,913	4,376
Alcohol,	16.47	16,270	2,673	16.31	20,339	3,327
Average,	19.77	18,806	3,673	19.85	21,998	4,332

[32] 1 hectare = 2.471 acres. 1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds.

It is evident from the data given in the table that the liberal application of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the yield per acre of tubers and of starch to a very marked extent, although the average percentage of starch present is increased very little. Converting the average data given in the foregoing table into their equivalents in pounds per acre, we have the following results: Without nitrogen—yield of tubers, 16,781 pounds per acre; yield of starch, 3,277 pounds per acre. With nitrogen—yield of tubers, 19,629 pounds per acre; yield of starch, 3,856 pounds per acre.

The following varieties of potatoes are considered in Germany the best for the manufacture of alcohol: Wohltman, Silesia, Agricultural Union, Athenena, Prince Bismarck, Richter’s Imperator, and Maercker. The latest consular report on the potato as a source of alcohol in Germany shows the following yields per acre and percentages of starch:

Yield and Starch Content of Potatoes Grown in Germany for Alcohol Production.

Varieties.	Yield per Acre.	Starch.
	Kilograms.	Percent.
Professor Wohltman,	3,420	16.3
Iduna,	2,845	16.4
Topaz,	3,260	17.3
Sas,	3,990	18.3
Leo,	4,120	17.0
Richter’s Imperator,	4,760	15.4
Silesia,	3,675	16.3
Professor Maercker,	4,280	14.5

Use of the Potato.

—In addition to its value as human food the potato has other economical relations. It is used in many countries almost exclusively in the production of starch for the laundry and for general domestic uses.

The potato is not very extensively used for starch production in the United States except in the state of Maine and perhaps in one or two other localities. The starch of the potato has a particular value for use in the textile industry in the sizing of cloth. Practically all of the potato starch which is produced in the United States is devoted to that purpose, and for this reason it brings a higher price than the ordinary starch made of Indian corn.

Technique of the Production of Starch from Potatoes.

—There is scarcely any manufacturing process which is more simple in its method than the manufacture of starch from potatoes. The process consists simply in the rasping or grinding of the potato to a fine pulp, which is afterward placed upon sieves in a thin layer and sprinkled with water which detaches the starch granules from the pulp matter, carries them through the sieve, and thus separates them from the fibrous portion.

It will be interesting to the general reader, on account of the importance of this product, to give a brief description of the method employed and the results obtained.

Potato Starch.

—In this country potato starch is manufactured chiefly in Maine, Wisconsin, and Colorado. The factories are of a very primitive type, the machinery consisting of a rasper constructed usually by wrapping a wooden cylinder with sheet-iron punctured so that the ragged edges of the hole are on the exterior surface as shown in [Fig. 41]. Water is added at the time of rasping, and the starch pulp goes onto gauze shaking tables where the starch grains are washed through the sieve, as indicated in [Figs. 42] and [43]. The separated starch and water go into settling tanks. Where the starch has settled into a firm mass it is broken up and sent to the drying kiln. Potato starch is highly prized as a sizing in the textile industry.

Fig. 41.—Rasping Cylinder for Making Starch.—(Courtesy Department of Agriculture.)

Fig. 42.—Shaking Table for Separating the Starch From the Pulped Potato.—(Courtesy Department of Agriculture.)

Use of the Potato in the Manufacture of Spirits.

—A much more important technical use of the potato is in the manufacture of distilled spirits. Distilled spirits made from the potato are not generally used for potable purposes but are devoted to industrial uses. In the United States, very little if any distilled spirits are made from the potato. In Europe, however, especially in Germany, the industry is one of great magnitude. Practically all of the industrial spirits used in Germany and in many parts of Europe are made from the potato. The process is a simple one. The pulp of the potato, or starch, separated therefrom is subjected to the action of malt or other diastatic action for the purpose of converting the starch into sugar. In some cases this conversion takes place by more strictly chemical means, namely, by heating the pulpy matter or the starch separated therefrom in a proper state of dilution, in contact with an acid at a high temperature and pressure. Hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid is usually employed for this purpose. The action of the acid converts the starch into fermentable sugar, namely, dextrose, a form of sugar differing in its quality and character from that produced by malt known as maltose. Both sugars, however, are fermentable to the same degree and produce, for equal quantities of sugar, the same quantity of alcohol. When the starch is converted into sugar by one or the other of these methods it is subjected to fermentation by an appropriate quantity of yeast which is of the same family as that used in the alcoholic fermentation of other saccharine products.

Fig. 43.—The Potato Rasping Cylinder Arranged for work.—(Courtesy Department of Agriculture.)

Special characters of yeast, however, are reserved for special purposes, since the variety of yeast determines to a certain extent the character of the secondary products which are formed during fermentation and thus determine the character, flavor, and aroma of the finished product. After the fermentation has been completed the residue is technically known as beer, and is subjected to distillation for the separation of the spirit.

A description of the process of distillation will be found in the second volume of this manual and is therefore omitted here.

Radish.

—The botanical name of the radish is Raphanus sativus L. The French name is radis; German, Radies; Italian, ravanello; Spanish, rabanito.

The radish is a vegetable which is found throughout the whole year in all the principal markets of the United States, being grown under cover during the cold weather. It is ready for market within a short time after sowing, so that crop after crop can be grown during the year on the same soil. It is most highly prized when it is young, as it tends to acquire a pungent and bitter taste as it approaches maturity. The two principal varieties grown, as respects the roots, is the one having a long, tapering root, and the other a short, spherical bulb. The latter are more prized for eating purposes. There are many varieties grown.

Composition of Edible Portion.—

Water,	91.8	percent
Protein,	1.3	„
Fat,	0.1	„
Sugar, and other carbohydrates,	5.8	„
Ash,	0.7	„

Rhubarb.

—The botanical name for rhubarb is Rheum L. The French name is rhubarbe; German, Rhabarber; Italian, rabarbaro; Spanish, ruibarbo.

Rhubarb is a vegetable which is widely distributed in the United States and grows generally very early in the spring. It is a highly acid plant, and is used chiefly as a sauce and for making pies. It requires a very large addition of sugar to make it palatable. It has medicinal properties which give it additional value. There are many varieties grown. It is a plant that is ready for use very early in the spring, being available in the farmer’s garden almost before any other vegetable, and this makes it of still greater value.

Composition of the Edible Stem.—

Water,	92.67	percent
Ash,	.94	„
Protein,	.83	„
Fiber,	1.11	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	3.26	„
Fat,	1.19	„

The above data show that the rhubarb is practically valueless as food and is chiefly condimental. In regard to its nutrients the fat is in a larger proportion than in that of almost any other succulent vegetable.

Squash.

—Another variety of the gourd family which is highly prized as a food product is the squash. It is used in the same manner as the pumpkin, and is highly valued both as a food for man and domesticated animals.

Composition of the Flesh of the Squash.—

Water,	88.09	percent
Ash,	1.72	„
Protein,	.92	„
Fiber,	1.04	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	8.05	„
Fat,	.18	„

The above data show that the squash is a much more nutritive substance than the pumpkin. In other respects it is little different in its composition, being only a dryer form of pumpkin.

Sweet Potato.

—The vegetable known as sweet potato is known botanically as Convolvulus batatas L.

From the name it is seen that the sweet potato does not belong to the same botanical family as the potato itself. By reason, however, of its similar condition of growth and, to a certain extent, its chemical composition and uses, the term potato has, in this country at least, become to be universally applied to both, although the prefix “sweet” is quite commonly used with the sweet potato, whereas if any prefix is used with the potato, properly so-called, it is the word “white” or “Irish.” The sweet potato is grown extensively in the United States and in other respects, agriculturally, may be regarded as complemental to the potato.

While the potato grows best in the northern parts of the country and in mild climates, the sweet potato flourishes in the greatest abundance in the southern and warmer portions. In respect to the character of the soil the two vegetables are quite similar, both doing best in a sandy or loose soil, provided it is sufficiently supplied with plant food for the use of the growing plant. The sweet potato is a thickened root, and is propagated almost exclusively by means of shoots called “slips.”

Planting and Cultivation.

—There is a very distinct difference between the planting of the sweet potato and that of the potato. The former are rarely planted in the field where the crop is to mature. It is quite a universal custom to plant the sweet potato in beds where the young growth can be forced both by means of artificial heat and by a generous mulch of highly nutritious soil. The plants can then be set very early in the spring and by the time they are ready to be transplanted to the field have acquired a considerable size. When ready for transplanting the seed bed is prepared with the same care as that required for the potato. The ridging of the rows, which in the case of potatoes takes place during cultivation, is accomplished in the case of sweet potatoes before planting. If the soil is moist and the temperature not too high the young plants are removed from the seed bed and set on top of the apexes in the formed rows. The cultivation of the field during the growth of the crop is sufficient to keep the surface in good tilth and prevent the growth of weeds, grass, etc. Care must be exercised in the cultivation not to draw the earth away from the ridges which have been formed, but to increase their size by drawing the earth more and more toward the apex of the ridge. The cultivation is continued until the growing vines practically cover the surface of the soil and thus form a natural mulch, which not only conserves the moisture and tilth of the soil but also prevents the growth of weeds and grass. The sweet potato, in respect of its flavor, is particularly sensitive to the influence of frost, also the leaves are more sensitive to frost than those of the potato. If a heavy frost is experienced before the tubers are harvested it is apt to impart an unpleasant taste to the potato and injure its edible qualities. For this reason, if it is not possible to harvest the potato before the advent of frost, it is advisable to cut the vines at the point where they emerge from the soil. When this has been done the injurious effects of the frost, above mentioned, are not experienced. In the southern portion of the country the sweet potato is often allowed to remain in the soil during the greater part of the winter, and, if the vines are removed, it keeps in excellent condition.

Yield and Composition of the Sweet Potato.

—As has already been mentioned, there is a general resemblance, in so far as chemical and nutritive properties are concerned, between the sweet potato and the potato. The sweet potato is usually colored a yellowish tint, due to the distribution of more or less xanthophyll throughout its substance. The sweet potato also contains notable quantities of cane sugar, to which its name is due. It, however, contains large quantities of starch and fiber and small quantities of protein, resembling in this general manner the potato itself. The sweet potato has not been used in the United States for the making of alcohol. In the Azores great quantities of sweet potatoes are grown for this purpose, and make an alcohol of fine quality, which is used to a large extent in fortifying port wines. There are large areas in the United States, especially in the Southern States, where the sweet potato can be grown in great abundance. The experiments at the South Carolina station show that as high as 11,000 pounds of sweet potatoes can be grown per acre. The percentage of starch is markedly greater than in the white or Irish potato. In all cases over 20 percent of starch was obtained in the South Carolina sweet potatoes, and in one instance over 24 percent. As high as 2,600 pounds of starch were produced per acre.

In addition to starch, the sweet potato contains notable quantities of sugar, sometimes as high as six percent being present, so that the total fermentable matter in the sweet potato may be reckoned at the minimum at 25 percent. A bushel of sweet potatoes weighs 55 pounds, and one-quarter of this is fermentable matter, or nearly 14 pounds. This would yield, approximately, 7 pounds, or a little over one gallon of 95 percent alcohol. It may be fairly stated, therefore, in a general way, that a bushel of sweet potatoes will yield one gallon of industrial alcohol. The average yield of sweet potatoes, of course, is very much less than that given in the South Carolina reports, where heavy fertilization was practised. On plots to which no fertilizer was added the yield was about 8,000 pounds of sweet potatoes per acre, yielding in round numbers 1,900 pounds of starch. The quantity of sugar in the 8,000 pounds is about 350 pounds, which, added to the starch, makes 2,250 pounds of fermentable matter per acre. This will yield 1,125 pounds of industrial alcohol of 95 percent strength, or approximately 160 gallons per acre.

The yield of sweet potatoes in the above computation must be regarded as exceptionally high. A safer calculation will be based upon the yield of 100 bushels of sweet potatoes per acre, a little above the average of the yield of the potato, or a total of 5,500 pounds per acre. One-quarter of this amount is fermentable matter—about 1,400 pounds—which would yield, approximately, 700 pounds of 95 percent alcohol, or 100 gallons of 95 percent alcohol per acre. In addition to the sugar in the form of sucrose, or common sugar, which the sweet potato contains, there is also an appreciable amount of non-crystallizable sugars. The total sugars in the sweet potato have not been overstated in the above estimate. In fact, the contrary, rather, is true, since the two sugars together probably average about six percent of the weight of the potato. If the average quantity of starch in the sweet potato is 20 percent, which is rather a low estimate, the total fermentable matter in the sweet potato is 26 percent instead of 25 percent, as estimated above.

Changes in Composition of the Sweet Potato of Different Varieties on Storing.[33]

First Lot (November 28).
Name of Variety.	Original.				Air-dry.				Water-free.
Name of Variety.	Water.	Starch.	Invert sugar.	Sucrose.	Water.	Starch.	Invert sugar.	Sucrose.	Starch.	Invert sugar.	Sucrose.
	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.
Georgia Buck	75.35	13.13	0.77	4.31	6.79	49.65	2.93	16.31	53.27	3.14	17.50
Bunch Yam	72.37	15.12	1.09	4.45	6.67	51.06	3.67	15.04	54.71	3.93	16.11
Do.	67.99	19.58	.56	4.49	7.24	56.70	1.61	13.02	61.18	1.74	14.04
Horton Yam	70.29	15.06	1.05	6.23	6.24	47.52	3.31	19.67	50.68	3.53	20.98
Georgia Buck	71.56	14.35	.73	6.61	6.88	46.98	2.40	21.63	50.45	2.58	13.23
Vineless Yam	70.03	16.85	.54	5.01	7.90	51.78	1.67	15.40	56.22	1.81	16.72
Hanover Yam	76.16	13.61	1.10	4.22	7.37	52.89	4.29	16.40	57.10	4.63	17.70
Georgia Yam	70.01	18.87	1.00	4.08	7.57	58.17	3.07	12.59	62.93	3.32	13.62
Average	71.72	15.82	.86	4.93	7.08	51.84	2.87	16.26	55.82	3.09	16.16
Second Lot (January 7).
Name of Variety.	Original.				Air-dry.				Water-free.
Name of Variety.	Water.	Starch.	Invert sugar.	Sucrose.	Water.	Starch.	Invert sugar.	Sucrose.	Starch.	Invert sugar.	Sucrose.
	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.	Per- cent.
Georgia Buck	69.74	12.72	1.75	9.25	8.80	38.34	5.27	27.87	42.04	5.78	30.56
Bunch Yam	67.31	13.66	2.02	9.90	9.49	37.83	5.60	27.40	41.80	6.19	30.27
Do.	67.29	13.83	2.40	9.43	10.00	38.04	6.61	25.94	42.27	7.34	28.82
Horton Yam	71.39	9.57	2.57	9.69	7.18	31.05	8.35	31.43	33.45	9.00	33.86
Georgia Buck	67.63	14.43	2.12	7.85	8.46	40.80	6.00	22.21	44.57	6.55	24.26
Vineless Yam	67.33	12.03	2.90	10.09	7.90	33.90	8.19	28.44	36.81	8.89	30.88
Hanover Yam	70.13	14.13	1.66	6.58	9.29	42.90	5.05	19.99	47.29	5.57	22.04
Georgia Yam	71.78	11.21	2.26	8.10	8.62	36.30	7.31	26.24	39.72	8.00	28.72
Average	69.08	12.70	2.21	8.86	8.72	37.40	6.55	26.19	40.99	7.17	28.68

[33] South Carolina Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 63, p. 25.

Effect of Storage on Composition.

—Experiments have shown that the quantity of starch diminishes and the quantity of sugar increases on storing. Further, it may be stated that in the varieties of sweet potatoes which are most esteemed for table use there is less starch and perhaps more sugar than are stated in the above examples. In one instance of an analysis made on the 7th of January of stored potatoes, the starch had fallen to a little less than 13 percent, while the sugars had increased to over 11 percent in less than six weeks. The total quantity of fermentable matter, however, as will be seen, had not been greatly changed, although there was probably a slight loss. In the southern agricultural work referred to, the yam and the sweet potato are considered together. The composition and the changes on keeping are well illustrated by the preceding data.

The above data apparently are sufficient to show the high value which attaches to the sweet potato and the yam, not only as edibles, but especially for the purpose of making alcohol. It is also seen that the sweet potato would not be a valuable material for making starch alone, because in starch making the sugar which the sweet potato contains is lost, whereas in the manufacture of alcohol the sugar and the starch, as well as any fermentable celluloses or gums in the potato, are utilized. The following table shows the extent to which this crop is grown in the United States:

Acreage and Production of Sweet Potatoes (Including Yams) in the United States by States, in 1899, As Reported by the Twelfth Census.

States.	Acres.	Bushels.
United States	537,447	42,526,696
Alabama	50,865	3,457,386
Arizona	51	4,299
Arkansas	13,271	998,767
California	1,607	239,029
Colorado	20	2,291
Connecticut	2	130
Delaware	2,265	222,165
District of Columbia	5	19,936
Florida	22,791	2,049,784
Georgia	70,620	5,087,674
Hawaii	135	9,284
Idaho	6	413
Illinois	7,534	511,695
Indiana	3,989	239,487
Indian Territory	1,064	80,364
Iowa	2,688	24,622
Kansas	4,570	74,810
Kentucky	14,178	925,786
Louisiana	27,372	1,865,482
Maryland	6,469	677,848
Massachusetts	.....	23
Michigan	71	3,242
Minnesota	4	136
Mississippi	38,169	2,817,386
Missouri	9,844	743,377
Nebraska	551	48,224
Nevada	5	923
New Hampshire	1	6
New Jersey	20,588	2,418,641
New Mexico	47	6,180
New York	73	8,681
North Carolina	68,730	5,781,587
North Dakota	.....	1
Ohio	3,796	249,767
Oklahoma	2,512	195,799
Oregon	27	2,825
Pennsylvania	3,443	234,724
Rhode Island	1	102
South Carolina	48,831	3,369,957
South Dakota	3	105
Tennessee	23,374	1,571,575
Texas	43,561	3,299,135
Utah	40	4,958
Vermont	4	306
Virginia	40,681	4,470,602
Washington	52	4,672
West Virginia	3,393	202,424
Wisconsin	4	86

Average Composition of Sweet Potatoes.

—The mean composition of varieties of sweet potatoes as determined by the California and Texas Experiment stations is shown in the following data:

	California Station (17 varieties).		Texas Station (21 varieties).
Water,	69.00	percent	70.27	percent
Ash,	1.15	„	1.14	„
Protein,	2.08	„	2.41	„
Fat,	1.00	„	0.99	„
Total sugars,	5.55	„	6.81	„
Starch, etc.,	24.23	„	24.00	„
Crude fiber,	2.62	„	1.26	„

Included in the starch of the above data are the substances soluble in boiling dilute acid and alkali.

Turnip.

—The botanical name of the turnip is Brassica napus L. The French name is navet; German, Herbst-Rübe; Italian, navone; Spanish, nabo.

The turnip is grown very largely in the United States both as a vegetable and as a field crop for feeding purposes. The turnip used as a vegetable usually has a spherical bulb. It is a crop that grows late in the autumn. In the central part of the country it is usually sown as a field crop after the harvesting of some of the early crops as, for instance, early potatoes, and is ready for harvest late in the autumn, just before freezing weather begins. Grown as a vegetable, however, it is grown early as well as late. It has a spicy, pungent taste which makes it extremely palatable. It is sometimes eaten raw, but generally stewed.

Composition.—

Water,	90.46	percent
Ash,	.80	„
Protein,	1.14	„
Fiber,	1.15	„
Sugar, starch, etc.,	6.27	„
Fat,	.18	„

The above data show that the turnip is not a very nutritious vegetable and that its chief nutrients are carbohydrates.

Yam.

—Another variety of edible root or substance belonging to the sweet potato class is known as the yam. It is also, like the sweet potato, particularly suited to growing in the subtropical or warm climates. The name yam properly belongs to a tropical root similar in appearance to the sweet potato but produced by various species of vines of the genus Dioscorea, not belonging even to the same family as the sweet potato. In the southern United States, however, the name yam is applied to certain varieties of the sweet potato with large coarse stems. It is cultivated extensively in the southern part of the United States, and is valued both as a food for man and specially for domesticated animals. The character of the soil, method of planting, and cultivation are the same as in the case of the sweet potato. It is particularly valued for fattening the variety of swine so common in the South, known as the “razor-back” hog. This animal does his own harvesting, and thus removes from the agriculturist a portion of his labor which is not of the most agreeable kind.

Composition of Yams.

—The composition of yams does not differ to any notable extent from that of the sweet potato.

Other Uses of the Yam and Sweet Potato.

—In addition to the use of the yam and sweet potato for human food, reference has already been made to their value as food for domesticated animals. These bodies are particularly relished by hogs and cattle. The feeding of sweet potatoes or yams to milk cows insures a healthy condition of the body, and also imparts to the milk, cream, and butter the distinct amber tint which is regarded as a mark of excellence. Thus even in the winter months the butter which is made from milk produced in this way will have the light amber tint, which should distinguish it from the highly tinted artificially colored product which does so much to bring good butter into bad repute. Both sweet potatoes and yams are capable of yielding abundant supplies of distilled spirits. It is probable that under the new law which permits the use of denatured alcohol free of taxation in the arts an abundant supply of this product can be secured from the sweet potato and the yam. There are millions of acres of cheap land of a sandy character in the South Atlantic and Gulf states where potatoes and yams can be successfully grown under scientific principles of agriculture. If not needed for food purposes as above mentioned, the residue can be very profitably devoted to the manufacture of industrial alcohol.