Dairying exemplified, or, The business of cheese-making / Laid down from approved rules, collected from the most experienced dairy-women, of several counties. Digested under various heads. From a series of observations, during thirty years practice in the cheese trade. The second edition corrected and improved

by J. Twamley

ON BUTTER.

Butter is an Article in very general use, and numerous are the people employed in making it; and is in great esteem; from observations I have made, it admits of very little variation in the method of preparing, which methods are so generally known, require very little commentary upon them; I profess not to understand them, and therefore shall say very little about it. What little I have remarked in conversing with Dairy-women, is, that care should be taken to set up your Milk when it is of a proper warmth—Milk-warm is the best, regulated the same as for rendling Cheese, applying a little cold Water if too hot, and either warm Water or Milk if too cold; many think Water best, saying, it will throw up Cream sooner; to take care the Utensils it is set up in, are exceeding clean—the utility of which I think is clearly made appear by observing the effect of a contrary remark in making Whey Butter.—Indolence, finds out many ways which Industry never thought of.—Some Butter-Women, whose care is, more, to make a large quantity, than regard the quality, or flavour of Butter, will tell you, that sour Whey, yields more Cream than sweet, and it immediately turns sour, by putting it into the Pans you poured the last meal’s Whey from, without washing them. But in making good Butter, great care must be taken to prevent the Cream’s being sour, or your Butter will be ill flavoured, and will keep good but a very little time—That lead Pans are preferred to every thing, in throwing up, or rising the Cream from Milk. Not to let the Milk stand too long before it is skimmed, especially in hot weather.—If it must stand two meals, it had better be skimmed twice, than to let it stand the whole time for one skimming, as the Milk often turns sour before the expiration of two meals; and if the last meal should change, you may then be enabled to keep all the sweet Cream by itself.—The less time the Cream stands before it is churned, the finer flavoured and sweeter your Butter will be.

Nothing is more commendable in a Dairy-maid than cleanliness, nor will any thing cause them to be more esteemed; every one who perceives extream neatness in a Dairy, cannot help wishing to purchase either Butter or Cheese from so clean and neat a place, and would gladly give a higher price, rather than be exposed to the chance of sluttish nastiness, too common in many Dairys. It is remarked by many Travellers, that in the Isle of Wight, nothing is more pleasing than to see the exceeding neatness of their Dairys; it very rarely goes unnoticed, and to a delicate taste, scarce any thing affords greater pleasure.

As Butter is become a very considerable Article of Trade, it is highly proper every means should be rendered to make it as complete and perfect as possible; it is very different in regard to purchasers of large quantities of Butter, who must take lots as they happen, and in which very often a considerable part of them are very inferior to what they ought to be, and to buyers of fresh Butter in Markets; who can see and taste it before they buy, which is a caution to the makers to have it well made, knowing it will be inspected before sold, those who put it into Casks or Firkins, for distant sale, are apt not to be so very careful about it. I have heard frequent enquiry by Cheese-mongers, or dealers in Butter, what is the cause of Salt Butter being so subject to get rank, strong tasted, or rancid, or what some people call a fishy taste, which is a very great detriment to dealers in Butter, and the cause of the complaint much wants to be known; being well acquainted that the complaint is very frequent, has often led me to enquire into the cause when an opportunity has offered, being lately conversing with a person on the subject, he said it was very common in Suffolk & Yorkshire, to heat the Milk before it was set up for Cream, which is done in order to increase the quantity of Cream. It is well known that every fat substance that is heated, will in course of time turn rancid, or reezy, that when Butter, of the last year, or a year old, is in the Cask through the Summer, the heat will affect it, and so far as the heat gets into it, will reeze or become of a tallowy nature, fat Bacon will reeze so far as the fat melts; and the heating of Milk must certainly alter the nature of it, and in course of time will cause the Butter to turn rancid, and ill tasted. I have heard it observed by a person who is used to buy fresh Butter that was made of heated, or clouted Cream, (which is a method much used in some parts of the South of England) that it is very apt to get strong and will keep good but a very little time. So that from all remarks I have been capable of making, it seems clear to me that the badness or foulness of Butter, is chiefly owing to the Milk being heated, and is a hint worth the enquiry of the public, especially large dealers in Butter, in order that some method may be taken to prevent an evil that is become so very prevalent.

A friend who has been much used to Dairying, lately communicated to me a method to give Winter made Butter, which is often made from Fodder, either Hay or Straw, the countenance and relish of Summer Butter, made in the prime of the Season; which is done by taking the juice of carrots, being bruised, or pounded to a pulp & then press’d or squeezed out, putting it into the Cream before Churn’d. And also, a method to take off the disagreeable taste of Butter made from Turnips, viz. let your Cream be warmed and poured into a Tub or Pail of cold Water, then skim the Cream off the Water, which will rise to the top, the same as in Milk, and by this means leave the foul taste behind it in the Water, this last method will much improve Whey Butter, taking off the disagreeable sourness that often attends it, and by adding the juice of carrots as above, will help its colour and give it an agreeable relish, and by this means you may salt Whey Butter, down in pots, that will do very well for paste in Winter. In a very sensible, and practical Essay printed in the third Volume of the Bath Society’s Letters and Papers on Agriculture, &c. by Mr. Hazard, some useful remarks are made on Dairying, and also on the Dairy-house, which he says, should always be kept in the neatest order, and so situated, that the Windows or Lattices never front the South, South-east or South-west; Lattices are also prefer’d to Windows, as they admit a more free circulation of Air, than glazed lights possible can do, and to prevent the cold Air in Winter, a sliding frame coverd with oil’d cap paper, pasted on packthread strained thereon, will admit the light and keep out the Sun and Wind. It is hardly possible in the Summer to keep a Dairy-house too cool, on which account none should be situated far from a good spring or current of Water: They should be neatly paved with red brick or smooth hard stone, and laid with a proper descent, so that no Water may lodge, this pavement should be well wash’d in summer every day; and all the Utensils belonging to the Dairy should be kept perfectly clean, nor should the Churns even be suffer’d to be scalded in the Dairy as the steam that arises from hot Water will injure the Milk, nor do I approve of Cheese being kept therein, or Rennet for making Cheese, or having a Cheese Press fixed in a Dairy, as the Whey and Curd will diffuse their acidity throughout the Room. He is of opinion the proper receptacle for Milk are Earthen-pans or Wooden-vats, but not lined with lead, as that mineral certainly contains a poisonous quality and may in some degree affect the Milk, but if people still persist in using them, he advises that they never forget to scald them, scrub them well with salt and Water and to dry them thoroughly before they deposit the Milk therein, indeed all Utensils should be cleaned in like manner before they are used, and if after this, they in the least degree smell sour, they must undergo a second scrubbing before they are fit for use, he also recommends Pans with a large-surface, or wide at top; during the Summer Months he recommends skimming the Milk very early in the Morning before the Dairy becomes warm, and not in the Evening till after Sun set; churning he recommends to be done in a Morning before the Sun appears, taking care to fix the churn where there is a free draft of Air, if a pump churn be used it may be plunged a foot deep into a tub of cold water to remain there the whole time of churning, which will very much harden the Butter; a strong rancid flavour will be given to Butter, if the churn be so near the fire as to heat the wood, in the Winter season.

After Butter is churned, it should be washed in many different waters till it is perfectly cleansed from the Butter-milk, but he observes a warm hand will soften it and make it appear greasey: The Cheese-mongers use two pieces of Wood (or Spaddles) for their Butter, and if those who have a very hot hand were to have such, they might work the Butter, so as to make it more saleable.

Butter will require, and endure, more working in Winter than in Summer, but he remarks he never knew any person, whose hand was warm by nature make good Butter.

Those who use a pump churn must endeavour to keep a regular stroke, nor should they admit any person to assist them, except they keep nearly the same stroke, for if they churn more slowly, the Butter will in Winter, go back, as it is called, and if the stroke be more quick and violent, in the Summer it will cause a fermentation, by which means the Butter will imbibe a very disagreeable flavor. Where many Cows are kept, a barrel churn is preferable, but it requires to be kept very clean or the bad effects will be discover’d in the Butter, to be fixt in a warm place in Winter, and where there is a free Air in the Summer.

As many of my acquaintance wished to have an enlarged account, of the Art of making Butter: I was very glad to have the opportunity, of collecting these annex’d, which are most of them worthy observation, and as I have before mention’d the method some people use in making Butter from what is generally call’d clouted cream; I shall now give you the process as laid down by Mr. Hazard.

“In the first place, they deposit their Milk in Earthen-pans in their Dairy-house, and (after they have stood twelve Hours in the Summer, and double that space in the Winter) they remove them to stoves made for that purpose, which stoves are filled with hot embers; on these they remain till bubbles rise, and the Cream changes its colour, it is then deem’d heated enough, and this they call scalded Cream, it is afterward removed steadily to the Dairy, where it remains twelve Hours more, and is then skimmed from the Milk and put into a Tub or Churn, if it be put into a Tub, it is beat well with the hand, and thus they obtain Butter, but a cleanlier way is to make use of a Churn; some scald it over the fire, but then the smoke is apt to affect it, and in either case if the pans touch the fire, they will crack or fly, and the Milk and Cream be wasted.”

Dairy-women are oft times much perplex’d when churning, by having the Butter very long in coming, the cause of which I have never heard properly explain’d, some think the Cream was too cold, sometimes it is thought too hot, many observe that an irregular motion in churning prevents its coming properly, as before remark’d by Mr. Hazard, but there seems to be a more powerful chemical cause; from observing common causes, I should imagine there is an alcaline salt in old Milk, which sometimes overcomes the oily part of the Cream when agitated by the motion of churning, so as to prevent the Butter, separating in the churn, the cure for which seems to be, to reduce the alcali to a neuteral state, which effect, Acids are known to have, or at least alcalies on Acids, as is common; when Beer gets sour or much Acid, to recover it by putting a little salt of Tartar, salt of Worm-wood or any other powerful alcali into it, immediately recovers it to its usual state, and neither the acid nor alcali are perceived in the Beer, being made neuteral by their union.

I am much pleas’d to find my opinion seconded, and put in practice by an anonimous Author in the Bath Papers, who was very earnest to find out a remedy that would hasten the operation in churning, and from a very pertinent idea that led him to weigh the matter, seems to have found out the real cause of the obstruction, met with in the work, and also a remedy, which many Dairy-women will be very happy to be inform’d of, as the Author justly observes, it will shorten the Labour of many a weary Arm, and prevent much vexation to a multitude of good House-wives.

He observes, that when the operation of churning had been going forward for half a Day, he caused a little distilled Vinegar to be poured into the churn, and the Butter was produced within an Hour afterwards.

He also remarks upon the subject, that if the supposition be admitted, that the Cream of old Milk (and such is Milk for the most part in Winter,) contains much stronger alcaline salt, or at least more of it than new Milk does, then the effect of the Vinegar is readily accounted for on the known principles of Chymistry, it is an acknowledged property of alcalies to unite with oil into a saponaceous (or soapy) mass, and to render them intimately miscible with water. But it is likewise well known to chemists that there is a nearer affinity (as they Term it) a much stronger elective attraction between acids and alcalies than between alcalies and oils; consequently the acids being mixed with the Cream, immediately attaches to itself the alcaline salt, which is the bond of union, as we may call it, that holds together the oleaginous (oily) and aqueous (watery) particles, and leaves them easily separable from each other. It may perhaps be objected to this mode of practice that the acid mixing with the Cream, would render the Butter unpalatable; but this on experience I do not find to be the case, and indeed I should not my self have expected it, as the Butter is usually well washed in two or three changes of clean Water, by which the whole of the acid is carried off, or if some few particles remain, they are so few as not to be perceiv’d by the taste & perhaps have rather a desirable effect than otherwise, by acting as an antiseptic, (preventing putrefaction) and preventing the Butter from becoming rancid so soon as it otherwise would do; he adds, my experiments have not as yet ascertained the exact quantity of the acid which is necessary to produce the proper effect, nor the precise time of its being mix’d with the Cream. But I apprehend a table spoonful or two to a gallon of Cream will be sufficient; nor would I recommend it to be applied, till the Cream has undergone some considerable agitation.

After having so much interested myself in endeavouring the improvement of Dairying, I am unwilling to take my final leave of it, without adding my sincere wish, that the increase of Dairy-Farms, may meet with every encouragement from the Public, as it appears to me, a matter of the first consequence to this Nation. The price of Butter & Cheese having so much increased within a few years, makes it quite necessary to give every encouragement to the increase of Dairying, as it plainly appears, there is not near a sufficiency of those Articles for general use, and every endeavour to increase the quantity must be for the Public good, if we only consider how large a quantity of Butter is imported into England every Year, and yet the price still continues to advance; it is astonishing to think that there is annually great quantities of Grain of different kinds imported into the Kingdom, while such a prodigious quantity of Land lies waste in commons or that are of very little benefit to the community in general; also, how many thousand People (both young and old) are now unemploy’d, who might find sufficient support, if encouragement was given for improving of Land for different purposes, and growth of numerous materials which now takes our Money abroad, such as Rhubarb, Liquorish, Madder, Woad, Teasels, Flax, Hemp, &c. As a plan for improvement in Husbandry, seems much to prevail at present in this Kingdom, as if in emulation, to keep pace with the Arts, and ingenuity discoverable in many of our capital Manufactures in the present Age, so superior to those of former times and which are still improving in a very great degree, so from the various Societies connected in different parts of this Kingdom, for the benefit and improvement of Agriculture, great knowledge is acquired and made Public for the general advantage of community, and if the same spirit would animate Gentlemen in common, who doubtless are the people that will receive the greatest advantage from the inclosure of commons, it would be a noble example, and discover a true patriotic spirit, if they would undertake the improvement of the Lands, which may be inclos’d, and who have it more in their power, especially where small Farms are necessary, (than the peasant to whom they may be let, and who, when they are made useful can perhaps best employ them for the Public good,) they would then be well repaid for their trouble, be setting a noble example to posterity, making a fortune for their Family, at the same time they are enabling numbers to gain a livelihood by their means, and what is there in Life that would more endear them to their Country, than such a benevolent disposition. I have not a doubt but the proportion of large Farms throughout this Kingdom is too great for the small ones, and if the inclosure of commons should take place, there would be a proper opportunity to equalize them, by making a larger number of small Farms of different degrees, from 20 Acres to 50, from 50 to 100 and from 100 to 150, for tho’ it is from large Farms, that our principal supply of provisions must arise, yet it certainly is from the small Farms that our Markets are chiefly supply’d with the common necessaries, such as Butter, Eggs, Fowls, Pigs, Pigeons, Fruit and many other common necessaries of human Life, and the more small and moderate siz’d Farms there are, the better will all Markets be supplied. I have not a doubt but if Gentlemen would undertake the management of new enclosures, great improvement might be made from the Horse-hove, and drill Husbandry so much commended by many of the Bath Society correspondents, as well as those of Arthur Young, Esq.; and from the advantage proposed thereby of improving Land by those methods, with very little manure, if Gentlemen would thoroughly adopt that method upon a large scale of practice, doubtless it would become universal, and from the great quantity of Seed proposed to be saved by this method, and a larger crop produced, must in the end be a very great advantage to this Nation; many may object, that the inclosed commons, will very little of it become Dairy-Land for a considerable time; yet it will certainly come in, in time, and the more Arable Land is brought into use, certainly the greater proportion of Grass Land may be spared for the Dairy. One great impediment to inclosures is the great expence of Acts of Parliament, this might be remedied in a great measure, if Government would grant one general Act for inclosing commons throughout the Kingdom, under the direction of County Committees, which might be appointed for that purpose at a moderate expence, and fully answer the design, but as a hint at the improvement, is the only thing I can advance toward it, yet, like the Widows mite, I would not with hold it, as it may encourage more capable Persons to take it in hand.

SOME ACCOUNT,
OF
Noxious, Bitter, and Poisonous,
PLANTS.

Ribwort, ribbed grass, black plantain or cock plant; this plant may not properly be ranged among bitter plants, it not being bitter to any great degree, but I have often thought upon examination, that the bitterness in some Cheese more resembles the taste of this plant and dandelion than any other whatsoever, and in barren soils they are apt to prevail more than any other.

Arsmart, or lakeweed, is a bitter plant, well known; ’tis said to produce an essential oil, or oil extracted by distillation, which I should imagine more likely to affect the bitterness of Milk than colder plants, it is apt to grow very strong after being mowed, and I have not observed that Cows refuse or leave it untouched more than other plants in common. I think this plant much more likely to cause the bitterness of Butter in Autumn than the falling leaves to which it is generally referred, though many people are of opinion that Cows eating ash leaves in Autumn, causes the bitterness in Butter.

Meadow sweet—is a bitterish plant that Cows are fond of, especially the sort that grows on up-lands, commonly called drop-wort, the meadow sweet of low-meadows is a sort they do not readily feed on where there is plenty of Grass.

Centaury, lesser centaury or gentian, is an extream bitter plant, bears a pale red blossom with many florets, or pips, on an upright stem in old Pastures, blows from June to August, I should imagine it must be hurtful in Dairy-ground being a very penetrating bitter.

Hemlock, with stems and branches, spotted with brown, or black, and white flower; the whole plant is poisonous, it grows in hedges, orchards, or among rubbish, and is very common.

Henbane, with blossoms purple & brown—indented leaves, embracing or cleaving to the stem, grows on road sides or among rubbish, the seeds, roots, and leaves taken internally are all poisonous.

Nightshade, grows in moist brakes and hedges, with bluish blossoms, sometimes inclined to flesh colour, sometimes white.

Deadly nightshade—dwale—or belladonna is the worst specie, growing in woods, hedges, among lime-stone or rubbish; the stem is herbaceous or of a herby nature, the leaves, spear, or halbert shaped, the flowers of a bluish purple with a bright yellow thrum, chives, or pointal, appearing like the snuff of an expiring Candle, the berries grow in very handsome bunches, first green, then a fine red, next a beautiful black, are very tempting to Children having cost many their Lives, causing stupor, delirium, and convulsions, and are certain Death if not prevented by timely and plentiful vomiting; this plant cannot be too well known being so very common in most Countries, and so tempting, both to Children and Cattle.

Cow-bane, water-virosa, or water-hemlock—with rundles or flower branches opposite the leaves, leaf-stalks with blunt borders, with about seven pair of little leaves, which are variously divided and indented, petals, or leaf of the flower, yellowish pale green, grows in shallow waters, is a perennial plant, or that continues from year to year, blows in July; this is one of the rankest of our vegetable poisons; numerous instances are recorded of its Fatality to the human species; an account of it may be seen and an engraving in Martin’s Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 10. Early in the spring when it grows in the water, Cows often eat it and are killed by it, but as the Summer advances and its smell becomes stronger, they carefully avoid it; though a certain fatal poison to Cows, Goats devour it greedily and with impunity, Horses and Sheep eat it with safety.

Cow-weed, or wild Cecily, grows in hedges, blows in May, or June, with white flowers, roots like a Parsnip, and is very poisonous.

Water-wort, Water-hemlock, or Water-skeleton, is esteem’d a fatal poison to Horses, occasioning them to become paralytick, which is owing to an insect called Curcutia Paraplecticus, which generally inhabits within the stem; the usual antidote is pig’s dung, the branches of the leaves stradling—stem very thick, hollow, scored, petals or flowers white, grows in rivers, ditches and pools, blossoms in June; in the Winter the roots and stem dissected by the influence of the weather, afford a curious skeleton, or network.

Kex, or water-parsnip, with white flowers in July or August, grows in rivers and fens, is very noxious to Cattle; also the lesser Kex called upright water-parsnip, in rivers and ditches, is very common; blossoms in July and August, leaves halbert shaped, rundles or flower-branch opposite the leaves.

Drop-wort, or dead tongue, grows on the banks of rivers, bears a white flower in June, the petals or leaves of the flower sharp—bent inwards, tips purple or brown—the whole of this plant is poisonous, the stem is a yellowish red, the leaves smooth, streaked, jagged at the edges, the root is the rankest and most virulent of all vegetable poisons.

Mithridate—or penny-cress, grows in corn fields with oblong leaves, toothed, smooth, white blossoms; the whole plant has something of a garlick flavour, the seeds have the acrimony or sharpness of mustard; Cows are rather fond of it, and I should think their Milk is often affected by it.

Penny-wort, or white-rot, grows in marshy springy ground, with a pale red flower, blows in May; many Farmers suppose it occasions the rot in Sheep, but I should expect that complaint proceeds from a very different cause; though, if flowks that are supposed to be the certain cause of the Rot, or the spawn of them, are taken in with the food of Sheep, as some imagine, it is possible the Ova, or Eggs of this Insect may be deposited in this plant, which to know, may be worth the Farmer’s enquiry.

Some Account of the Runnet-Plant.

Yellow Verum—Goose-grass; the Leaves growing by eights, or eight leaves round the stem, strap-shaped—furrowed—the flowering branches short, blossoms yellow.

English Names, are yellow ladies bed-straw or Cheese Renning, or petty muguet; it grows in dry ground, on road sides, very common, is perennial, blows in July or August. The flowers will coagulate boiling Milk, and some Cheshire Cheese is said to be made with them; according to an experiment from Borrchius they yield an Acid by distillation. The French prescribe them in hysterick and epileptick cases, boiled in Allum-water they tinge wool yellow, the roots dye a very fine red, not inferior to Madder and are used for this purpose in the Island of Jura. See Pennant’s Tour, 1772, Page 214. Sheep and Goats eat it, Horses and Swine refuse it, Cows are not fond of it. If the roots will answer the same purpose as Madder it highly merits the observation of Calico Printers and others, who use large quantities of that Article, as it is the most common weed, and what in the month of July, there is more of, than any other weed, and if the flowers will dye yellow, and make Cheese, it must be a very valuable Plant and be a great help to the Poor to collect it, as it grows on all road sides, old pastures and hedges in great abundance.

I have omitted giving the Latin names of Plants, not having sufficient knowledge in that Language; but such of my learned readers who with for that addition, may refer either to Dr. Withering’s, or other books on Botany, to Chambers, Croker, or other Dictionaries.

FINIS.