Animal Behaviour - C. Lloyd Morgan

If we are ever to trace the passage from the instinctive through the indicating stage of communication, and so onwards through the beginnings of description to its higher levels, and thus to the use of language as a medium of explanation, it must be through child-study. In every normal human child the passage does actually take place, though, no doubt, in a condensed and abbreviated form as an epitomized recapitulation in individual development, of the steps of evolutional progress. Thus we may obtain a key to the solution of one of the most difficult problems in evolution by continuous process—that of the transition from animal behaviour to human conduct.

INDEX

A
Abstract and general ideas, [57]
Abstraction, [166];
germs of, [332] ff.
Acceleration, [250]
Accommodation defined, [36]
Acquired characters, inheritance of, [35], [110]
Acquired instincts (Wundt), [66], [106]
Acquisition defined, [36];
ultimately dependent on natural selection, [289]
Adaptation defined, [37]
Addison on instinct, [63]
Æsthetics, animal, [270]
Afferent and efferent impulses, [32], [101]
Aid, mutual, among animals, [227]
Ammophila mode of stinging prey, [75];
of carrying prey, [76];
deposition of egg, [77];
intelligent behaviour of, [127]
Amœba, [296]
Antlers of deer, [15]
Ants, behaviour of, [123];
intercommunication of, [198];
social communities of, [205]
Aporus, intelligent behaviour of, [126]
Appreciation, germs of, [273]
Ardour of male in courtship, [269]
Argyromœba, instincts of, [79]
Arrest of development in egg, [14]
Association in coalescent situation, [46]
Attention, [242]
Audubon on American night-hawks, [261]
Avebury, Lord, on ants, [198];
on Van, [200];
on aphides and ants, [214];
on slave ants, [215];
on intelligence of ants, [218]
B
Baldwin, Prof. Mark, on organic selection, [37] (note), [115];
on functional selection, [163];
on imitation, [179] ff.;
on projective stage of development, [275]
Batesian mimicry, [165]
Bechstein on canaries, [262]
Bees, homing of, [131];
social communities of, [205]
Beetle soliciting food from ant, [213]
Bembex mode of carrying prey, [76]
Bethe, Dr., on instinctive behaviour of ants, [217]
Binet, M., on infusoria, [6]
Biological value of play, [250];
purpose, [294];
aspect of animal behaviour, [305]
Birch-weevil, leaf-case of, [121]
Birds, instinct of, [84]
Bison, behaviour of the, [226]
Blackburn, Mrs. Hugh, on instinct of cuckoo, [90]
Blockmann, Dr., on componotus, [210]
Bolton on goldfinches’ nests, [136]
Bower-bird, observations on, [261], [273]
Buckman, Mr. S. S., on speech of children, [203]
Budgett, Mr. John S., on nest-building, [135]
Bullfinch, nest of, [135]
C
Cameron, Mr., on mimetic insects in ants’ nest, [212]
Canaries’ nest, building of, [135]
Canon of interpretation, [270]
Capacity, innate, [176]
Capuchin monkey, imitation in, [188], [278]
Carpenter, W. B., on water-beetle, [299]
Catasetum, fertilization of, [29]
Cats, Prof. Thorndike’s experiments on, [147], [184]
Causation, idea of, [257]
Cell-division in egg, [14]
Cerceris, instincts of, [74];
locality studies of, [129]
Chalicodoma, parasites of, [78];
Fabre’s observations on, [130]
Chick swimming, [85];
instincts of, [85] ff.;
imitation in, [183]
Child-study, desirability of, [155], [337]
Choice, apparent in Paramecia, [9];
in the pairing situation, [266]
Ciliary action in Paramecium, [4–10]
Circular process (Baldwin), [181]
Clepsine, behaviour of, [159]
Coalescence in conscious situation, [46]
Coincident variations defined, [37];
survival of, [115], [174]
Communities, social, of bees and ants, [205]
Companion as centre of special interest, [244]
Componotus, communities of, [210]
Conation and impulse, [187], [235]
Concept, nature of, [167]
Condensation of experience, [163]
Conduct implies motive, [60];
and ideal, [278]
Congenital responses, [41]
Conjugation in Paramecium, [4]
Connate instincts, [66], [69]
Conscience, ambiguity of word, [281]
Conscious accompaniments of certain organic changes, [42];
aspect of instructive behaviour, [99]
Consciousness, as accompaniment and as guide, [34];
effective, defined, [43];
as heir to organic estate, [52];
as epiphenomenon, [306]
Consentience, [53], [62]
Consonance of biological and psychological end, [286], [316]
Constancy of environment leads to stereotyped behaviour, [173]
Continuity in evolution, [324];
threefold aspect of, [329]
Control, the sign of effective consciousness, [43]
Co-ordinated acts, [69], [100];
inherited, [94], [95]
Corporate behaviour, [14]
Courtship in animals, [259]
Coyness of female birds, [264] ff.
Cranial sense-organs, [301]
Crayfish, reflex action in, [298]
Creation, special, [297]
Criteria of effective consciousness, [43];
of intelligence, [120]
Cruelty in cat, [277]
Cuckoo, instinct of nestling, [90]
D
Darwin, Charles, fig. of sun-dew leaf, [26];
of Venus’s fly-trap, [27];
of catasetum, [31];
on earthworms, [158];
on social life of animals, [225];
on human ancestry, [229];
on play and practise, [259];
on sexual selection, [262] ff.;
on law of battle, [313]
Davis, Prof. Ainsworth, on limpets, [156]
Dean, Dr. Bashford, on chick swimming, [85]
Deceit in animals, [280]
Deferred instincts, [70]
Definiteness of instinctive behaviour, [66]
Description, involves relational terms, [202]
Didunculus, changed habits in, [221]
Differentiation and integration of nerve-centres, [167]
Disintegration of instincts, [176]
Diving, instinctive, [86]
Dog, observations on, intelligence of, [141] ff., [152], [200], [271], [322]
Duckling, inherited co-ordination in, [96]
Dytiscus, instinct of, [104]
E
Earthworms, Darwin’s observations on, [158] ff.
Education in play, [255], [320] ff.
Effective consciousness defined, [43]
Efferent and afferent impulses, [32], [101]
Egg, cell-division in, [14]
Eimer, Th., on instincts of solitary wasps, [73];
on origin of instincts, [108]
Emotions, and feelings, [235] ff.;
psychological nature of, [246];
evolution of, [282]
Energy stored in cell, [23]
Equilibrium, tendency to, [296]
Eristalis, mimicry of, [164]
Espinas, Prof., on social life of animals, [230]
Ethics, animal, [270]
Evolution of organic behaviour, [35];
of consciousness, [61];
of instinctive behaviour, [106];
of intelligent behaviour, [155];
of social behaviour, [225];
of feeling and emotion, [282];
of animal behaviour, [295];
as continuous, [324] ff.
Experience, of value for future guidance, [44];
is it inherited? [48], [97];
condensation of, [163]
Experimentation, [251], [253]
Explanation, characteristic of later phases of mental development, [58], [257]
Explosive nature of cell, [21]
Expression of emotions, [247]
External stimuli to instinctive behaviour, [102]
F
Fabre on behaviour of Sphex, [77], [172];
of Chalicodoma, [78], [129];
of Leucopsis, [79];
of Pompilus, [129]
Faculty, instinctive, [64]
Falcons, training of, [137]
Fear in birds not inherited in specific direction, [49], [110]
Feelings and emotion, [235] ff.;
evolution of, [282];
feeling-tone, [240]
Ferns, fertilization of, [24]
Fertilization of ferns, [24];
of Valisneria, [28];
of orchids, [29]
Finn, Mr. Frank, on the acquisition of experience by young birds, [50]
Fission, reproduction of Paramecium by, [4]
Flight, instinctive, [86]
Forel on Componotus, [211]
Foster, Sir Michael, on consciousness accompanying reflex action in pithed frog, [33]
Frog, reflex action in, [33], [299], [300]
Functional selection, [163]
Fungus garden of ants, [216]
G
Garner, Mr. R. L., “The Speech of Monkeys,” [198]
Gas-engine, analogy of, [20]
General and abstract ideas, [57];
generalization, [167];
germs of, [332] ff.
Generic image, [162];
situations, [163]
Germinal substance, continuity of, [328]
Gould, Dr., on humming-birds, [273]
Green, Mr. E. G., on ants, [210]
Greenfinch, nest of, [135]
Groos, Prof., on instinct, [64];
origin of, [116];
on imitation, [187];
on animal play, [248] ff.;
on “Love Play,” [259];
on coyness of female birds, [264];
on choice in mating, [267];
on make-believe, [280]
H
Habits and habitual acts, [107], [177]
Hague on ants, [199]
Hamerton, P. G., on trained dog, [152]
Hancock, Dr. John, on cuckoo, [92]
Heredity and circumstance, [39];
twofold aspect of, [40];
relation of to use, [170], [177];
in evolution as continuous, [326]
Homing of bees, [131]
Homœopathic influence defined, [36]
Honey-pot ant, [215]
House-martin, nest-building of, [113]
Hudson, Mr. W. H., on fear in birds, [49], [50], [110];
on animal gladness, [317]
Hunting play, [254]
Huxley, T. H., on reflex action in frog, [300];
on consciousness as epiphenomenon, [306] ff.;
on consciousness as product of nervous changes, [330]
Hyde, Mr., on king-crab, [298]
Hydractinia, colonial polype, [206]
I
Ideals, distinguish ethics, [278]
Ideational stage of mental development, [59]
Imitation, [179] ff.;
three stages of in child, [192]
Impulse in intelligent behaviour, [60];
Prof. Thorndike’s use of the term, [186];
connection of with conative process, [235]
Independence of automatic and controlling centres, [43]
Infant, congenital responses in, [54]
Influence of intelligence on instinct, [169]
Inheritance of acquisitiveness, [40]
Innate capacity, [176];
likes and dislikes, [119]
Insects, instinctive behaviour in, [71];
intelligent behaviour in, [123]
Instinct, broader and narrower view of, [99];
primary and secondary, [108], [109];
influence of intelligence on, [169];
priority of, to intelligence, [173];
disintegration of, [175]
Instinctive behaviour defined, [63];
in insects, [71];
in birds, [84];
conscious aspect of, [98]
Integration and differentiation of nerve-centres, [167]
Intelligence lapsed, [107];
influence of, on instinct, [169];
of ants, Lord Avebury on, [218];
biological importance of, [310]
Intelligent behaviour, [117];
evolution of, [155]
Intelligent process distinguished from rational, [59], [138]
Intercommunication, [193], [336]
Interest, [243]
Internal factors in instinctive behaviour, [102]
Irritability, fundamental, property of protoplasm, [240], [296]
J
James, Prof. Wm., theory of emotions, [246], [292]
Jays, bathing of, [89];
mode of taking food, [94]
Jenner on cuckoo, [92]
Jennings, Dr. H. S., on behaviour of Paramecia, [5]
K
Kerner, Dr., on sun-dew, [26];
on sensitive Oxalis, [27];
on Valisneria, [29]
King-crab, reflex action in, [298]
Knight, Andrew, on Norwegian ponies, [110]
Kropotkine, Prince, on mutual aid among animals, [227]
L
Lamarckian hypothesis, [169], [171], [177]
Language, nature of, [195]
Lankester, Prof. E. Ray, on small-brained mammal, [168]
Lapwing, instinctive behaviour of, [113]
Law of battle, [313]
Leech, observation on, [159]
Leucopsis, instincts of, [79]
Lewes, G. H., on lapsed intelligence, [107]
Limpets, observations on, [156]
Lindley, Dr., on children, [141]
Locality, studies by wasps, [128]
Locke, John, limitations of animals, [167]
M
Mackenzie, Prof. J. S., on ethics, [278];
on conscience, [281];
on ambiguity of word “pleasure,” [285]
Make-believe, [280]
Mammals, early small-brained, [168]
Manipulation (Stout), [251]
Marchal, Prof., on instincts of Cerceris, [74]
Marshall, Mr. H. R., on instinct, [66]
Martin, nest-building of, [113]
Martineau, James, on pleasure and pain, [284]
Maupas, M., observations on infusoria, [4]
Mayer, Dr. A. G., on mating instinct of moths, [83]
McCook, Dr., on ants, [214]
Meaning, Dr. Stout’s use of term, [46], [243], [268]
Medlicott, Mr. H. B., on behaviour of wild pigs, [196]
Megapodes, instinctive flight of, [87]
Meloë, instincts of, [81]
Mental development, stages of, [48], [56]
Mercier, Dr. Charles, on criteria of intelligence, [120]
Metaphysical explanations, [19];
aspect of instinct, [64];
of impulse, [237];
of purpose, [294];
of will, [307];
of life, [325]
Mills, Prof. Wesley, on social influence on puppy, [220]
Miltogramma, parasitic fly, [134]
Mimicry, Batesian and Müllerian, [165];
intelligent aspect of, [311]
Modifiability, [171]
Modification, defined, [36];
relation of, to hereditary characters, [170]
Möller, Herr, on fungus garden of ants, [216]
Monistic hypothesis, [309], [315]
Monkey, capuchin, imitation in, [188]
Monodontomerus, instincts of, [79]
Moor-hen, diving of, [89]
Moths mating, instinct of, [83]
Motive in rational conduct, [60]
Movement plays, [251]
Müller, Prof. Max, on barrier between brute and man, [204]
Müllerian mimicry, [165], [166]
Mystery of life, [18]
N
Natural selection, shielding of chicks from, [111];
under uniform and variable circumstances, [175];
in playtime of life, [319]
Nervous arc, [33];
system of higher animals, [297]
Nest-building, observations on, [135]
Noiré on concept, [167]
Norwegian ponies, [109]
Nucleus division, [12]
O
Object and subject, [245], [276]
Octopus, intelligence of, [158]
Œcophylla, behaviour of, [210]
Orchids, fertilization of, [29]
Organic basis of differentiation of consciousness, [53]
Organic behaviour in development, [15]
Organic selection, [37] (note), [115]
Overproduction of movements, [164]
Oxalis, sensitive, behaviour of, [27]
Oxybelus, mode of carrying prey, [76]
P
Paley, definition of instinct, [64]
Paramecium, behaviour of, [3], [296]
Partridge, note of young, [93]
Peckham, Dr. G. W., on instinct, [65];
on solitary wasps, [72] ff., [126] ff.
Pecking instinct of chicks, [93]
Peewit, note of young, [93]
Pelopœus, instincts of, [72]
Perceptual stage of mental development, [59]
Personality, [245], [257]
Pheasants, note of young, [92];
inherited co-ordination in, [95];
plumage of Argus, [262]
Philanthus, prey of, [73];
mode of stinging prey, [74]
Physiological aspect of animal behaviour, [295]
Pigeons, nests of, [136]
Pigs, wild, behaviour of, [196]
Plants, behaviour of, [24]
Plastic period of life, [168]
Plasticity of tissues, [40];
of behaviour, [172]
Play of animals, [248] ff.;
biological value of, [250];
psychological aspect of, [256], [311], [316]
Playne, Mr. H. C., on pigeons’ nests, [136]
Pleasure, [241];
ambiguity in word, [285]
Polistes, locality studies of, [131]
Pompilus, mode of carrying prey, [76];
Fabre’s observation on, [129]
Presentative elements distinguished from re-presentative, [46]
Primary instincts (Romanes), [108]
Projective stage of mental development, [275];
senses, [304]
Pronuba, instinct of, [82]
Propensity, instincts as, [64];
congenital, [176]
Protoplasm, fundamental properties of, [296]
Psychological aspect of play, [256];
purpose, [294];
aspect of animal behaviour, [315]
R
Rational process distinguished from intelligent, [59], [138]
Reflex action, [31], [35], [298] ff.;
relation of instinct to, [70]
Relationships, importance of, [202]
Re-presentative elements distinguished from presentative, [46]
Rhynchites, instinct of, [121]
Romanes, G. J., on “discrimination” and “perception” in plants, [32];
on instincts of solitary wasps, [73];
definition of instinct, [99];
on primary and secondary instincts, [108], [109];
on ants, [126];
on general ideas, [166];
on animal communication, [201];
on cruelty in cat, [277]
Romanes, Miss, observations on capuchin monkey, [188], [278]
Roots of spinal nerves, [299]
Rothney, Mr. G. A. G., on Indian ants, [212]
S
Schneider, on octopus, [158]
Scott, Dr. D. H., on fern fertilization, [25]
Scratching in duckling, [96]
Sea anemone, diffused nervous system of, [32]
Secondary instincts (Romanes), [108], [109]
Segmental nature of central nervous system, [299]
Selection, functional, [163];
natural, shielding of chicks from, [111];
under uniform and variable circumstances, [175];
in playtime of life, [319];
sexual, [261] ff., [313]
Self, as ideal construction, [239]
Sentience, [62];
origin of, [330]
Sexual selection, [261] ff., [313]
Sharp, Dr. D., on birch-weevil, [121];
on Œcophylla, [210]
Shellard, Mr. E. J., observations on staghound, [144]
Sherrington, Prof., on emotion, [292];
on spinal animal, [298] ff.
Shock, effects of physiological, [302]
Simcox, Miss Edith, quoted, [320]
Sitaris, instincts of, [82]
Slave ants, [215]
Snails, observations on, [157]
Social behaviour, [179];
evolution of, [225]
Solitary wasps, instincts of, [72] ff.;
intelligence of, [126] ff.
Solomon Islands, rats of, [222]
Sounds emitted by young birds, [92]
Spalding, Douglas, on newly hatched turkeys, [49];
on instinct, [99]
Special creation, [297]
Speech, connection of, with rational process, [58], [233];
so-called, of monkeys, [198];
of children, [203];
aids passage from perceptual to ideational process, [337]
Spence, on instinct, [63]
Spencer, Mr. Herbert, on instinct and reflex action, [70];
on play due to surplus vigour, [248];
on pleasure and pain, [284], [287];
on survival, [288]
Sphex, mode of carrying prey to nest, [77], [172]
Spiders placed in crotch by wasps, [133]
Stereotyped behaviour, [172]
Sticklebacks, observations on, [130]
Stout, Dr. G. F., on “meaning” for consciousness, [46], [243], [268];
on ideational and perceptual stages of mental development, [59], [271];
on octopus, [158];
on conative process, [235];
on the self, [239];
on manipulation, [251];
on emotion, [293]
Strange, Mr., on bower-bird, [261]
Subject and object, [245], [276]
Sun-dew leaf, behaviour of, [25]
Swimming, instinctive, [85]
T
Tait, Lawson, on begging-cat, [110]
Tarde, M., on imitation as a social factor, [179]
Tendencies, congenital, [176]
Thomas, Mr. Oldfield, on rats of Solomon Islands, [222]
Thorndike, Dr., on swimming of chick, [85];
experiments on intelligence, [147] ff.;
experiments on imitation, [179], [183] ff.
Tradition, animal, [220]
Trial and error, method of, [139]
U
Unity of perceptual process, [240];
of biological purpose, [297]
Use, super-normal, [170];
relation of, to heredity, [171], [177]
V
Valisneria, fertilization of, [28]
Variation defined, [36];
origin of, [327]
Venus’s fly-trap, behaviour of, [26]
Vigour, play due to surplus, [248]
Volition as conative, [238]
W
Wallace, Dr. A. R., on sexual selection, [264]
Wallaschek, Mr., on play as surplus vigour, [248]
Wapiti, antlers of, [16]
Wasmann, Dr., on insects associated with ants, [213]
Wasps, solitary, instincts of, [72] ff.;
intelligence of, [126] ff.
Weir, Mr. Jenner, on canaries, [135]
Weismann, Prof., on origin of instinct, [109]
Whitman, Prof., on Clepsine, [159]
Whitmee, Rev. S. J., on tooth-billed pigeon, [221]
Will, metaphysics of, [307]
Williston, Dr. S. W., observation on Ammophila, [127]
Wood, Mr. Foster, on hen-swimming, [86]
Worcester, Dr., on megapode, [87]
Wundt, Prof., on instinct, [65], [99], [106]
Y
Youth, plasticity of, [168]
Yucca moth, instincts of, [82]

THE END

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FOOTNOTES

[1] See “The Psychology of a Protozoon,” in the Amer. Jour. of Psychology, vol. X., No. 4, July, 1899, and the fuller papers there quoted.

[2] “The Psychic Life of Micro-Organisms,” 1889, p. 61.