Christmas in Ritual and Tradition, Christian and Pagan

by Clement A. Miles

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INDEX

• Abbots Bromley, horn-dance at, [201]
• Abruzzi, All Souls’ Eve in, [192];
  • “new water” in, [333]
• “Adam,” drama, [127-8]
• Adam and Eve, their Day, [271]
• Adam of St. Victor, [33-4]
• “Adeste, fideles,” [63-4]
• Advent, [90-2];
  • “Advent images,” [118];
  • Klöpfelnächte, [216-8]
• Alexandria, pagan rites at, [20]
• All Saints’ Day, and the cult of the dead, [173], [189-90]
• All Souls’ Day, and the cult of the dead, [173], [181], [189-95]
• Alsace, Christkind in, [230];
  • New Year's “May” in, [269-70]
• Alsso of Brĕvnov, [183]
• Ambrose, St., [31-2]
• Amburbale, [353]
• Amiens, Feast of Fools at, [305]
• Anatolius, St., hymn of, [100]
• Ancestor-worship, [181], [253-4], [290], [341]
• Andrew, St., his Day, [173], [213-6], [277]
• Animals, carol of, [69];
  • ox and ass at the Nativity, [155];
  • cult of, [174-8];
  • masks of, [175-6], [199-202];
  • on Christmas Eve, [233-4];
  • specially fed at Christmas, [289];
  • wassailing, [346-7]
• Ansbach, Martinmas in, [206]
• Antwerp, soul-cakes at, [194];
  • St. Martin at, [206-7];
  • St. Thomas's Day at, [224]
• Apples, customs with, [195-6], [207], [278]
• Ara Coeli, Rome, [115-6]
• Ardennes, St. Thomas's Day in, [224]
• Armenian Church, Epiphany in, [22]
• Artemis and St. Nicholas, [218]
• Aryan and pre-Aryan customs, [163-4]
• Aschenklas, [219], [231]
• Ashes, superstition about, [258]
• Ass, Prose of the, [304-5]
• Athens, New Year in, [331]
• Aubrey, J., [308]
• Augury, [182], [195-8], [214-5], [225], [237], [321-33]
• Augustine, St. (of Canterbury), [21], [179]
• Aurelian, [23]
• Austria, Christmas poetry in, [45-46];
  • Christmas drama in, [143-6];
  • soul-cakes in, [194];
  • St. Nicholas in, [218-20];
  • St. Lucia's Eve in, [223];
  • St. Thomas's Eve in, [225];
  • Frau Perchta, etc., in, [241-4], [342];
  • Sylvester in, [274].
  • See also Bohemia, Carinthia, Styria, Tyrol
• Awdlay, John, [47-8]

• Bach, J. S., [73-4]
• Baden, All Souls’ Eve in, [192]
• Balder, [273]
• Baptism of Christ, celebrated at Epiphany, [20-2], [101-4]
• Barbara, St., her festival, [268]
• Bari, festival of St. Nicholas at, [221]
• Barring out the master, [224]
• Bartel, [219]
• Basil, St., his festival, [331]
• Basilidians, [21]
• Basle, Council of, [305]
• Bavaria, St. Martin's rod in, [207];
  • Christmas-trees in, [266-7];
  • sacrificial feast in, [286];
  • St. John's wine in, [314]
• Beauvais, Feast of the Ass at, [305]
• Bede, Venerable, [181], [203][392]
• Bees on Christmas Eve, [234]
• Befana, [244], [278], [343]
• Belethus, Johannes, [302]
• Belgium, All Souls’ Eve in, [192], [194];
  • St. Hubert's Day in, [202];
  • Martinmas in, [204-7];
  • St. Catherine's Day in, [213];
  • St. Nicholas in, [219];
  • St. Thomas's Day in, [224]
• Bentzon, Madame Th., [96-7]
• Berchta. See Perchta
• Berlin, pyramids in, [266];
  • biscuits in, [288]
• Bernard, St., of Clairvaux, [33]
• Berry, cake customs in, [287], [339]
• Bethlehem, Christmas at, [94-5], [107]
• Biggar, bonfires at, [327]
• Bilfinger, Dr. G., [172]
• Birds fed at Christmas, [289]
• Blindman's buff, [293]
• Boar's head, [284], [348]
• Bohemia, the “star” in, [152];
  • fifteenth-century Christmas customs in, [183];
  • St. Andrew's Eve in, [215-6];
  • St. Thomas's Eve in, [224-5]
• Boniface, St., [171]
• Boy Bishop, [212-3], [306-8];
  • connection with St. Nicholas, [220-1], [307-8]
• “Breast-strip” rites, [328]
• Breviary, the Roman, [90]
• Briid, [354]
• Brimo, [21]
• Brittany, Herod play in, [141];
  • Magi actors in, [151];
  • All Souls’ Eve in, [191-2];
  • Christmas Eve superstitions in, [233-5], [236];
  • Christmas log in, [256];
  • New Year in, [323];
  • aguillanneuf in, [330];
  • weather superstition in, [332]
• Brixen, cradle-rocking at, [111]
• Brixlegg, Christmas play at, [143] f.
• Bromfield, Cumberland, barring out the master at, [224]
• Brough, Westmoreland, Twelfth Night tree at, [270]
• Brunnen, Epiphany at, [341]
• Budelfrau, [220]
• Burchardus of Worms, [181]
• Burford, Christmas holly at, [275]
• Burghead, “Clavie” at, [327]
• Burns, Robert, [197]
• “Bush, burning the,” [346]
• Buzebergt, [220]
• Byrom, John, [84]

• Caballero, Fernan, [66-7], [117], [151]
• Caesarius of Arles, [170-1], [181]
• Cakes, “feasten,” [177];
  • soul, [192-4];
  • St. Hubert's, [202];
  • Martin's horns, [204];
  • Christmas, [287-8], [289-90];
  • Twelfth Night, [337-40], [346];
  • St. Basil's, [341]
• Calabrian minstrels, [112]
• Calamy, [185]
• Caligula, [168]
• Callander, Hallowe'en at, [198]
• Cambridge, St. Clement's Day at, [212]
• Canada, Christmas Eve superstition in, [234]
• Candlemas, [350], [352-5]
• Candles, on St. Lucia's Day, [212-2];
  • Yule, [258-60]
• Cards, Christmas, [279]
• Carinthia, St. Stephen's Day in, [312]
• Carnival, [300], [349]
• Carols, meaning of the word, [47-8];
  • English sacred, [47-51], [76-8], [84-5];
  • Welsh, [69];
  • Irish, [69-70];
  • Highland, [70]
• Catholicism and Christmas, [27], [186]
• Celtic New Year, [172], [189], [195], [203-4], [321]
• Centaurs, [247]
• Cereal sacraments, [177-8].
  • See also Cakes
• Chambers, Mr. E. K., [5], [125], [299-300], [302-7], [348]
• Charlemagne, coronation of, [96]
• Charms, New Year, [182], [195-8], [321-34]
• Cheshire, Old Hob in, [199];
  • poultry specially fed at Christmas, [289]
• Chester plays, [128], [133-4]
• Chesterton, Mr. G. K., [85-6]
• Childermas, [315]
• Children's festivals, [205-7], [218-20], [223-4], [359-60]
• China, New Year in, [324]
• Chios, Christmas rhamna in, [270]
• Christkind as gift-bringer, [205], [230], [277-8]
• Christmas, pagan and Christian elements in, [18-28], [161-86], [357-60];
  • names of, [20-5];
  • establishment of, [20-2];[393]
  • its connection with earlier festivals, [20-8];
  • becomes humanized, [25-7], [34-8];
  • in poetry, [31-86];
  • liturgical aspects of, [89-101];
  • in popular devotion, [104-18];
  • in drama, [121-54];
  • its human appeal, [155-7], [357-60];
  • attracts customs from other festivals, [173], [226], [277-8], [284];
  • decorations, [178], [272-6];
  • feasting, [178-80], [283-91];
  • presents, [276-9];
  • masking customs, [297-308];
  • log, see Yule Log
• Christmas Eve, [229-38];
  • superstitions about the supernatural, [233-7];
  • log customs, [251-8];
  • fish supper on, [286-7]
• Christmas-tree, [168], [178], [263-72];
  • its origin, [267-72]
• Christpuppe, [231]
• Chrysostom, [269]
• Church, Dean, [34]
• Circumcision, Feast of, [101], [302].
  • See also New Year's Day
• Clement, St., his Day, [211-2]
• Cleobury Mortimer, curfew at, [258]
• Clermont, shepherd play at, [141]
• Coffin, Charles, [64]
• Communion, sacrificial, [174-8]
• “Comte d'Alsinoys,” [56], [58-9]
• Cornwall, Hallowe'en custom in, [196];
  • blackbird pie in, [293];
  • Childermas in, [315]
• Coventry plays, [128], [130-1], [138]
• Cradle-rocking, [108-11]
• Crashaw, [79-81]
• Crib, Christmas, [105-8], [113-8];
  • possible survivals in England, [118], [274]
• Crimmitschau, [112]
• Crivoscian customs, [231], [253-4], [276], [346-7]
• Croatia, St. Andrew's Eve in, [215];
  • Christmas log customs in, [251]
• Cronia, [166]

• Dalmatia, Yule log customs in, [252]
• Dancing, [47-8], [293-4], [298-300], [302]
• Daniel, Jean, [56], [58]
• Dannhauer, J. K., [265]
• Dasius, St., [167]
• Dead, feasts of the, [173], [180-1], [189-95], [235-6], [240], [253-4], [341]
• Decorations, evergreen, [168], [178], [350], [355]
• Denisot, Nicholas, [56], [58-9]
• Denmark, “star-singing” in, [151];
  • animal masks in, [202];
  • Martinmas goose in, [203];
  • St. Lucia's Eve in, [223];
  • St. Thomas's Day in, [223-4];
  • Christmas Eve superstitions in, [235-6];
  • Yule candles in, [259-60];
  • Christmas-tree in, [267];
  • pig's head eaten in, [286];
  • Yule-bishop in, [308]
• Derbyshire, “kissing-bunch” in, [274];
  • Plough Monday in, [352]
• Devil, and beast masks, [202];
  • and flax, [240]
• Devon, “Yeth hounds” in, [240];
  • “ashton faggot” in, [258];
  • wassailing fruit-trees in, [345]
• Dew, Christmas, [288-9]
• Dickens, Charles, [359]
• Dinan, Herod play at, [141]
• Dionysus, as child-god, [21];
  • winter festivals of, [169], [331]
• Dorstone, Hallowe'en at, [197]
• Drama, Christmas, in Latin, [121-7];
  • in English, [128-38];
  • in French, [128], [138-43];
  • in Spanish, [128], [148-50];
  • in German, [143-6];
  • in Italian, [147-8], [150];
  • survivals of, [150-4];
  • St. Nicholas plays, [220], [232];
  • pagan folk-drama, [298-302]
• Drinking customs, [36], [204], [285-6], [314-5], [327]
• Druids and mistletoe, [273]
• Duchesne, Monsignor, [20], [24]
• Durham, Candlemas at, [353-4]
• Düsseldorf, Martinmas at, [206]
• Dyzemas, [315]

• Eckhart, [42-3], [157]
• Edinburgh, New Year in, [325-6]
• Eiresione, [270]
• Encina, Juan del, [149]
• England, Christmas poetry in, [47-51], [76-86];
  • Midnight Mass in, [99];
  • possible survivals of the Christmas crib in, [118], [274];
  • the Nativity in the miracle cycles, [128-38];
  • “souling” in, [192-4];
  • Hallowe'en in, [195-8];
  • Guy Fawkes Day in, [198-9];
  • animal masks in, [199-201];[394]
  • Martinmas in, [203];
  • St. Clement's Day in, [211-2];
  • St. Catherine's Day in, [212-3];
  • St. Andrew's Day in, [213-4];
  • St. Thomas's Day in, [225-6];
  • Christmas Eve superstitions in, [234];
  • Yule log in, [257-8];
  • Yule candle in, [259];
  • pyramids and Christmas-trees in, [266-7], [270];
  • the Holy Thorn in, [268-9];
  • evergreen decorations in, [272-6];
  • Christmas boxes in, [279];
  • Christmas fare in, [283-6];
  • sacrificial survivals and Christmas games in, [292-3];
  • mummers and sword-dancers in, [297-301];
  • Feast of Fools in, [305];
  • Boy Bishop in, [220], [306-8];
  • St. Stephen's Day in, [292], [311-4];
  • Holy Innocents’ Day in, [315];
  • New Year's Day in, [321-9], [332];
  • Epiphany customs in, [337-8], [345-8];
  • Candlemas in, [350], [353-5];
  • Rock Day in, [351];
  • Plough Monday in, [352]
• Ephraem Syrus, [31], [239]
• Epiphanius, [21]
• Epiphany, early history of the festival, [20-2];
  • in the Roman Church, [101-2];
  • in the Greek Church, [102-4];
  • Blessing of the Waters at, [102-4], [244], [246], [344];
  • Italian religious ceremonies at, [116-7];
  • in drama, [125-8];
  • old German name for, [243];
  • folk customs on, [293];
  • Twelfth Night cakes and kings, [337-41];
  • expulsion of evils, [341-2];
  • the Befana and the Magi, [343-4];
  • wassailing, [345-7];
  • “Haxey Hood,” [347-8];
  • farewells to Christmas, [349-50]
• Erzgebirge, Christmas plays in, [144], [232];
  • St. John's tree in, [269];
  • pfeffern in, [316]
• Eschenloh, berchten at, [342]
• Esthonians, All Souls’ Day among, [191]
• Ethelred, laws of, [21]
• Etzendorf, St. Martin's rod at, [207-8]
• Evans, Sir Arthur, [253-4]
• Eves, importance of for festival customs, [196]
• Expulsion rites, [104], [181-2], [217], [327-8], [341-2], [344]

• Fabriano, Gentile da, [148]
• Fare, Christmas, [283-91]
• Feasting, connected with sacrifice, [178-9], [284];
  • at Martinmas, [202-4];
  • at Christmas, [283-91];
  • at New Year, [321-3];
  • at Epiphany, [337-41]
• Feien, [231]
• Feilberg, Dr. H. F., [6], [236], [313-4]
• Festivals, origin and purpose of, [17-8];
  • relation of pagan and Christian, [19-27], [169-74]
• Fire, not given out at Christmas or New Year, [170-1], [257-8];
  • bonfires, [182], [198-9], [204-5], [327], [346-50];
  • new fire lit, [198];
  • Christmas log and ancestor-worship, [251-4];
  • the Yule log and candle in western Europe, [254-60];
  • Candlemas fires and lights, [352-4]
• “First-foots,” [208], [252], [323-6]
• Fish eaten on Christmas Eve, [287]
• Flagellants, [146]
• Flamma, Galvano, [147-8]
• Fletcher, Giles, [82-3]
• Florence, Nativity plays at, [147];
  • Befana at, [343]
• Fools, Feast of, [180], [302-6]
• Football, [349]
• Fowler, Dr. W. Warde, [167]
• France, Christmas poetry in, [55-65];
  • Midnight Mass in, [96-8];
  • Christmas drama in, [124-7], [138-43];
  • All Souls’ Eve in, [191-2];
  • Christmas Eve superstitions in, [234-5];
  • Christmas log in, [254-6];
  • Christmas-tree in, [267];
  • Harvest May in, [271];
  • presents brought by le petit Jésus, [278];
  • Christmas cakes in, [287-8];
  • Feast of Fools in, [302-6];
  • Boy Bishop in, [308];
  • Innocents’ Day in, [316];
  • New Year in, [322-3];
  • aguillanneuf in, [329-30];
  • Epiphany in, [339-42], [344], [349-50];
  • Candlemas candles in, [353]
• Francis, St. (of Assisi), and Christmas, [36-8], [105-6], [157], [289]
• Frazer, Dr. J. G., [6], [167], [180], [182], [199], [276], [288], [324]
• Frick, Frau, [241]
• Frigg, [241]
• Friuli, All Souls’ Day in, [194]
• Frumenty, [285]

• Games, Christmas, [293-4][395]
• Gaude, Frau, [241-2]
• Gautier, Théophile, [64]
• Gay, [196]
• Geese-dancers, [299]
• Genealogy, chanting of the, [93]
• George, St., in mummers’ plays, [299-301]
• Gerhardt, Paul, [73-4]
• Germanicus, [202]
• Germany, Christmas established in, [21];
  • Christmas poetry in Catholic, [42-7];
  • Protestant hymns in, [70-6];
  • Christmas services in, [98-9];
  • the crib and Kindelwiegen in, [107-12];
  • Christmas drama in, [143-6];
  • “star-singing” in, [152];
  • Roman customs in, [171];
  • pre-Christian New Year in, [171-4];
  • soul-cakes in, [194];
  • the Schimmel and other animal masks in, [199-201];
  • Martinmas customs in, [202-8];
  • St. Andrew's Eve in, [214-6];
  • St. Nicholas in, [218-9], [229-32];
  • St. Thomas's Eve in, [225];
  • Christmas Eve in, [229], [237];
  • Twelve Days superstitions in, [240-3];
  • Frau Berchta, etc., in, [241-3];
  • werewolves in, [246];
  • Christmas log in, [256];
  • Christmas-tree in, [263-7], [359];
  • Harvest May in, [271];
  • Christmas presents in, [277-9];
  • Christmas fare in, [286-9];
  • sacrificial relics in, [292];
  • St. Stephen's Day in, [312], [315-6];
  • St. John's Day in, [314-6];
  • Holy Innocents’ Day in, [316];
  • New Year in, [322], [332]
• Gilmorton, “Christmas Vase” at, [118]
• Glastonbury thorns, [268-9]
• “Gloria in excelsis,” [91], [94]
• Goethe, [266]
• Goliards, [49], [128]
• Gomme, Sir Laurence, [257-8], [354]
• Goose, Martinmas, [203];
  • Christmas, [284]
• Gozzoli, Benozzo, [148]
• Grampus, [219]
• Greece, Epiphany ceremonies in, [102-3], [244-5], [344];
  • winter festivals of Dionysus in, [169], [245];
  • Kallikantzaroi in, [244-7], [257];
  • Christmas log in, [257], [344];
  • rhamna in Chios, [270];
  • “Christ's Loaves” in, [290];
  • folk-plays in, [300-1];
  • New Year in, [331], [333]
• Greek Church, Epiphany in, [22], [102-4];
  • Christmas in, [22], [99-101];
  • Advent in, [90]
• Gregorie, [315]
• Gregory III., [107]
• Gregory the Great, letter to Mellitus, [179], [203]
• Guernsey, Christmas superstitions in, [234], [240];
  • oguinane in, [330]
• Guisers, [297-8]
• Guy Fawkes Day, [182], [198-9]

• Habergaiss, [201]
• Habersack, [201]
• Hakon the Good, [21], [172]
• Hallowe'en, [182], [195-8]
• Hampstead, Guy Fawkes Day at, [199]
• Hans Trapp, [230]
• Hardy, Mr. Thomas, [48], [234]
• Harke, Frau, [241]
• Harrison, Miss Jane, [21], [176-7], [325]
• “Haxey Hood,” [347-8]
• Herbert, George, [81]
• Herefordshire, Hallowe'en in, [197];
  • pyramids in, [266];
  • Holy Thorn in, [269];
  • New Year water in, [332];
  • Epiphany and New Year ceremonies in, [346]
• Herod plays, [126-7], [129], [141], [153]
• Herrick, [81-2], [257], [338], [345], [354-5]
• Hertfordshire, pyramids in, [266]
• Hindu New Year, [322]
• Höfler, Dr., [288]
• Hogmanay, [328-30]
• Holda, Frau, [241-2]
• Holland, the “star” in, [152];
  • Martinmas in, [204-5];
  • Rommelpot in, [217];
  • St. Nicholas in, [219];
  • St. Thomas's Day in, [225]
• Holly, [272], [275-6]
• Holy Innocents’ Day, [127], [302], [306-8], [315-7]
• Horn-cakes, [202], [204]
• Hornchurch, boar's head at, [348]
• Horn-dance, [201]
• Horse, as a sacrificial animal, [200];
  • hobby-horse, hodening, and the Schimmel, [199-201];
  • customs on St. Stephen's Day, [311-4][396]
• Howison, [234]
• Hubert, St., his Day, [202]
• Hunt, Leigh, [337-8]
• Huysmans, J. K., [93]
• Hymns, Latin, [31-4], [42]