NEW FRENCH EMPIRE.—A new constitution was promulgated (Jan. 14, 1852), resembling that which existed under the consulate. The Legislative Assembly was virtually stripped of power.
One year later, the restoration of the Empire was decreed, and sanctioned by popular vote. The change was at first viewed with alarm by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Francis Joseph made a visit to Berlin, and was received with great honor. The two principal German sovereigns reviewed the troops of Berlin, in front of the bronze statue of Blücher. But Napoleon declared that the Empire meant peace, and the other great powers followed the example of England in recognizing his imperial government.
THE CRIMEAN WAR.—The administration of the French emperor was acceptable to the commercial classes, who prized tranquillity. He erected new edifices in Paris, and made many other improvements, which, however, had an eye to defense against popular insurrection, and involved much hardship for the poor. He married (Jan. 30, 1853) a young Spanish countess, Eugénie Montijo. What did most to give stability to his power, and to raise his repute in Europe, was the union of France with England in the prosecution of the Crimean war. The Emperor Nicholas thought the time propitious for the aggressive ambition of Russia with regard to Turkey. His plan of attack embraced a "provisional" occupation of Constantinople by Russian troops. He had intimated to England that the situation of "the sick man"—meaning the decaying government of Turkey—opened the way for a division of the Turkish Empire between the two powers. Lord Aberdeen was then prime minister in England, and Mr. Gladstone was chancellor of the exchequer. The dispute of Russia with Turkey, which was the ostensible occasion of the war, related to the holy places in Jerusalem, the resort of worshipers of different creeds, and to the privileges accorded by the Sultan to the Greek and Latin Christians respectively. The claim of Nicholas resolved itself into a demand to exercise a sole protectorate over the Christians of the Greek faith in the Turkish Empire. Without formally declaring war his forces crossed the Pruth. Alarm was awakened in Austria, in consequence of the Russian movements in that region. Nicholas had only been able to secure neutrality from Prussia and Austria. Louis Napoleon was anxious for war. Lord Aberdeen was averse to it; but the pressure of Lord Palmerston and his supporters was too strong, and war was declared (March 27, 1854) by England and France in alliance with Turkey. At first the Turks had unexpectedly gained advantages over the Russians, but the Turkish fleet was destroyed at Sinope (Nov. 30, 1853). Approaches of Russia which portend the acquisition of the mouths of the Danube, or of any of the Slavonic districts of European Turkey, can only excite jealousy and apprehension on the side of Austria. Nicholas, on the demand of Francis Joseph, which was seconded by Prussia, evacuated the Danubian principalities, which were provisionally held by Austrian forces. The English and French fleets that were sent into the Baltic did not produce the effect that was anticipated by the allies. The shores of the Black Sea were the main theater of the conflict. The troops of the English and French landed at Eupatoria in the Crimea in September, 1854, and defeated the Russians in the battle of the Alma. There was a second engagement at Balaklava (Oct. 25); and in the battle of Inkermann (Nov. 5) the attempt of the Russians to surprise the British forces met with a defeat. The effort of the allies was directed to the capture of the strong fortress of Sebastopol. St. Arnaud, the French general, had died, and been succeeded by Canrobert. Later, Lord Raglan, the English commander, died. The siege was prolonged. Once the batteries of Malakoff and Redan were attacked by the allies unsuccessfully; but, after a month's bombardment, both were taken by storm (Sept. 8, 1855), and Malakoff, which the French took, was held. The Russians blew up their forts at Sebastopol, and withdrew to the northern part of the fortress. Meantime Nicholas had died (March 2, 1855), and been succeeded by Alexander II.; and Lord Aberdeen had been superseded by Palmerston as head of the English ministry.
PEACE OF PARIS (MARCH 30, 1856)—In the Peace of Paris, Russia was obliged to cede the mouths of the Danube and a small portion of Bessarabia to Moldavia, to limit the number of her ships in the Black Sea, and to engage to establish no arsenals on its coast. The Black Sea was to be open to commerce, but interdicted to vessels of war. Russia gave up the claim to an exclusive protectorate over Christians in Turkey. She surrendered also the fortress of Kars in Turkish Armenia, which she had captured. Wallachia and Moldavia were confirmed in important privileges of self-government, under the Porte. Austria, France, and Great Britain, in a distinct treaty, guaranteed the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire.
NEUTRALITY DECLARATIONS.—The parties to the Treaty of Paris (including Austria and Prussia) united in four declarations on the subject of neutrality, by which privateering was abolished, the neutral flag was made to protect enemy's goods except contraband of war, these goods under an enemy's flag were exempted from capture, and it was ordained that blockades in order to be binding must be effective. The United States declined to concur in this agreement unless the private property of subjects or citizens of a belligerent power (unless it be contraband of war) should be also exempted from seizure by armed vessels of the enemy. This rule, were it adopted, would put private property on the sea on a level with private property on the land, in case of war.
WAR OF FRANCE AND SARDINIA WITH AUSTRIA.—After the contests of 1848-49, Victor Emmanuel II. was looked on by all except the ardent republicans of the school of Mazzini as the champion of Italian independence. He made Azeglio his chief minister, and Cavour his minister of commerce. Various reforms were adopted, especially for the reduction of the power and wealth of ecclesiastics. The rapid progress of administrative changes led Azeglio to withdraw from office. Cavour, his successor, a statesman of broad views and consummate ability, began to plan not only for the Sardinian kingdom, but likewise for all Italy. By his advice, Sardinia joined England and France in the Crimean war. At the Congress of Paris (1856), he spread before the European powers the deplorable misgovernment at Naples and in the other states of Southern Italy. He denounced a plot against the life of Louis Napoleon, which Orsini, a Roman, and a member of a secret society, tried to carry out, but failed (Jan. 14, 1858). Communications and a personal interview between Napoleon and Cavour followed. An alliance was formed, one of the objects of which was the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy. Prince Napoleon, the son of Louis Napoleon's uncle Jerome, was married to Clotilde, the daughter of Victor Emmanuel. Napoleon's ministers were opposed to a war with Austria, and he himself affected to have no intention of that kind. Russia proposed a congress; but Austria refused to admit Sardinia, or to join it herself, unless that power should immediately disarm. Russia was at that moment unfriendly to Austria, which had refused to help the Czar in the Crimean war. Prussia, also, showed a disinclination to interfere. France and Sardinia declared war against Austria, and Napoleon proclaimed that he would free Italy, from the Alps to the Adriatic (May, 1859). As the war began, a revolt broke out in Tuscany. The Tuscan Duke, the Duchess regent of Parma, and the Duke of Modena, had to fly from their capitals. Cavour accepted help from all Italian patriots except the adherents of Mazzini, to whom were imputed schemes of assassination. Garibaldi led the "Riflemen of the Alps." Louis Napoleon commanded the French army in person. The French were victorious at Magenta (June 4), where MacMahon was made a marshal. At the battle of Solferino (June 24), all of the three contending sovereigns were present. The Austrians were vanquished with very heavy losses. At this time Napoleon, unexpectedly to his Italian ally, in a personal interview with Francis Joseph at Villafranca, arranged preliminaries of peace, which provided, to be sure, for the cession of Lombardy to Sardinia, but left Venice and the "Quadrilateral,"—as the district, with its fortifications, east of the Mincio, was called,—under the Austrian rule. It was proposed that an Italian confederation should be formed, with the Pope for its honorary president,—a plan not destined to be realized. The Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Duke of Modena were to be restored, could it be done without a resort to arms. Napoleon was afraid of a long war. Russia was not disposed to suffer him to stir up a revolution in Hungary. Prussia might soon intervene; and this, Austria, too, did not anticipate without anxiety, since Prussia would thereby become predominant in Germany. Cavour, in disgust and indignation at this premature close of the struggle, laid down his office.
FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE SARDINIAN KINGDOM.—Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, and Romagna which belonged to the Pope, by deputies implored Victor Emmanuel to annex them to his kingdom. Plus IX. made the most strenuous opposition. Napoleon refused to use coercion, or to suffer it to be used by others, to carry out the Villafranca arrangements in the duchies. Cavour was recalled to office in 1860; and at his suggestion, made to Napoleon, the communities just named were allowed to dispose of themselves by popular vote. The result was their incorporation in the Sardinian kingdom. By way of compensation to Napoleon, Savoy and Nice were ceded by the Sardinian government to France. The Pope excommunicated all invaders and usurpers of the Papal States, without the mention of names.
ANNEXING OF NAPLES AND SICILY.—The next great event in Italy was the expulsion of Francis II., the tyrant who reigned in Naples and Sicily after the death of Ferdinand II. (1859). Garibaldi, without the consent of the Sardinian government, raised the standard of revolt in Sicily (1860), and conquered the island. The king and Cavour feared that his movement would give control to the republicans, and also bring Sardinia into war with other powers. But, despite this opposition, Garibaldi entered Naples as a victor, and was joined by Mazzini. The Sardinian troops entered the Papal States, which the king had threatened to do unless the guerilla attacks of pontifical troops in the south were suppressed. The French general, Lamoricière, in the service of the pontiff, was defeated at Castelfidardo. Garibaldi, triumphant in the Neapolitan kingdom, met Victor Emmanuel in the Abruzzi, and hailed him as "King of Italy." Naples and Sicily voted to join the kingdom of Sardinia. With the exception of Venice and the Roman Campagna, the whole of Italy was now united under the house of Savoy. On Feb. 18, 1861, the first parliament of united Italy was opened by Cavour. Shortly after, there was a public reconciliation between him and Garibaldi, between whom there had been an estrangement.
In addition to Garibaldi's general and constant dissent from the moderate policy of Cavour, the former was displeased that his soldiers had not been rewarded with higher positions in the Sardinian army than it was practicable or safe to grant to them. Cavour believed that society was on the march towards democracy, but that no republic, at the present, in Italy could be stable. Cavour had his heart set on gaining Rome for the capital of the kingdom, and on establishing "a free church in a free state." He did not live to see the realization of his hopes. His death occurred (May 30, 1861), shortly after the amicable interview with the republican patriot, to which reference has just been made.
"THE SEPTEMBER CONVENTION."—The hope of the national party in Italy was now directed towards the gaining of Venice and Rome. But, as regards Austria, the European powers would not have suffered a breach of the Peace of Villafranca. Louis Napoleon had assumed the part of protector of the Holy See, and a French garrison was stationed at Rome. After Cavour's death, Ricasoli, the head of the ministry, led the constitutional party; and Ratazzi, who succeeded him and had been more in sympathy with the Garibaldians, did not deviate from his predecessor's cautious policy. The relations of the Italian government to France, even obliged the king to interfere to put down a rising, set on foot by Garibaldi, for driving the French out of Rome. Garibaldi was defeated by the Sardinian troops at Aspromonte (Aug. 27, 1862), and taken to Spezzia. Thence he went to Caprera. The liberal party in Europe were incensed with Louis Napoleon. This was one inducement that moved him to enter into an agreement with Victor Emmanuel, by which France engaged to withdraw her troops gradually from Rome, leaving the Pope to form an army of his own; while, on the other hand, the king engaged (Sept. 1864) to prevent any attack on the papal territory. The French minister of foreign affairs said to the Italian minister at Paris, "Naturally the result of all this will be that you will end by going to Rome;" but matters were to be so managed that France should not be held responsible. This was the September Convention. Florence was made the capital of Italy; but it was acknowledged that this was a temporary arrangement, and that, as soon as the progress of events should open the way, the seat of government would be transferred to Rome. After the withdrawal of the French troops in 1866, Garibaldi, with the connivance of the Italian government,—in which Ratazzi, who had been obliged to leave his office, was again the ruling spirit,—once more gathered a force for the capture of Rome (1867); but France interfered, and the advance of Garibaldi was checked at Mentana by French troops. Afterwards Napoleon again placed a French garrison in Rome. Ratazzi, whose scheme of capturing Rome by non-interference was balked, had to lay down his office. The next step towards Italian unity was to be a result of the Austro-Prussian war.