The Principles of Language-Study

by Harold E. Palmer

The misunderstanding was natural enough; logicians would quote it as an example of the fallacy of the False Cause. The process of grammatical construction was carried out by means of a vicious form of translation exercise, and the result was utterly bad. Two important reforms might have been effected: in the first place, the vicious form of translation might have been replaced by a beneficial form; and secondly, new and more worthy uses of translation might have been found. But the act of translation itself (nay, the mere use of the mother-tongue) was made the scapegoat and so paid the penalty. It is now time for a second band of reformers to attack and to destroy the original cause of unsuccessful language-study, viz. grammatical construction, or at any rate to limit it to special cases and to appropriate occasions. It is time, too, to rehabilitate in some measure the character of the comparatively innocent process of translation, and to remove the stigma attached to those who still use the mother-tongue as a vehicular language, and by so doing proceed naturally enough from the known to the unknown.

These are no reactionary suggestions; they are made in the spirit of the nine essential principles treated in the previous chapters, and are not in contradiction to the urgent plea set forth in these pages for the recognition and fostering of our ‘spontaneous’ capacities for language-study. We can afford to ignore no necessary tool in our efforts to teach well and to produce perfect results, and translation is often a necessary tool, especially during the process of deriving constructed from memorized matter.

We suggest for the moment no tenth principle based on these considerations; we submit the problem and we more than hint at a solution. It is now time for experimental work on ‘ergonic’ lines, and the data to be obtained thereby will enable us to form our conclusions and to embody them among the principles of language-study.

INDEX

• Accidence, a branch of linguistics, [24], [126]
• Accuracy, principle of, [21], [22], Chapter [IX]
• Action-drill, effect of, [96]
• Active or passive work?, [166]
• Aim of the student, [15], [16]
• Archaic speech, [54], [127]
• Articulation exercises, object of, [20], [121]
• — — at what stage to introduce, [28], [151]
• — — description of, [89], [90]
• — — as a means of ensuring accuracy, [108]
• Articulation, mental or ‘inner,’ [53], [93]
• Attention, conscious and unconscious, [165]
• Audition, opportunities for, [118], [119]
• Automatism, necessity for, [20], [21]
• — nature of, [98], [99]
• — acquired by repetition, [101]
• Bantu languages, [38], [150]
• Bewilderment, elimination of, [27], [140], [141]
• Children, and language, [37]
• — bilingual, [40], [41]
• — Belgian refugee, [41]
• — use spontaneous capacities, [43], [82]
• — successful acquirers of foreign languages, [44]
• — studial methods unknown to, [48]
• — not averse to forming new habits, [86]
• — linguistic environment of, [111]
• — early phonetic work, [151]
• — unconscious of elements in compound words, [172]
• Chinese characters, in Japanese writing, [53]
• — — habit of writing, with brush, [85]
• Chinook jargon, [107]
• Chorus-work, [23], [120], [121]
• Classical speech, studial process necessary in order to learn, [48], [54]
• Colloquial speech, as standard, [22]
• — — as used by average speaker, [36], [47]
• — — compared with vulgar speech, [39]
• — — and studial work, [49], [54]
• — — and inaccuracy, [106], [107], [108]
• — — grammar of, [141]
• — — used in passages, [145]
• Competition as factor of interest, [27], [144]
• Complete method, [164]
• Concreteness, principle of, [25], [26], Chapter [XII]
• “Constructed matter,” [30], [31], Chapter [XVI]
• Context as method of teaching meanings, [26], [133]
• Conversion, a studial form of work, [14], [49], [50]
• — method for producing constructed matter, [30], [31]
• — drills as aid to accuracy, [110], [121]
• — process described, [177], [178], [179]
• Corrective courses require studial capacities, [15]
• — — require explanations, [21], [143]
• — — when necessary, [55]
• — — nature of, [56]
• Course, length of, [16], [64], [65]
• Course-designing, [18], [75]
• Cramming, [28], [139], [160]
• Cummings, Dr T. F., quoted, [156]
• Deaf-mutes, [93]
• Definition as method of teaching meanings, [26], [133]
• Depuis, English equivalent of, [130], [131], [133], [134]
• Dialect, [39], [40]
• ‘Dictionary-words,’ compared with ‘working words’ or ergons, [30], [159], [173], [175]
• Direct method, [31], [179], [180], [181]
• —— —— abuse of, [124]
• —— —— and concreteness, [131], [132]
• Drill-work, to ensure automatism, [21]
• —— compared with free work, [24], [25], [121], [128], [165], [166], [167]
• —— various types of, [96]
• —— necessity for, [136]
• —— not necessarily uninteresting, [137], [146]
• Ear-training, necessity for, [17], [70], [108], [157]
• —— as initial preparation, [20], [28], [64]
• —— description of, [88], [89]
• —— as a means of reception, [118]
• —— arguments for and against, [151]
• Eclecticism, [29], [161], [162], [164]
• Egger, Victor, quoted, [93]
• Elementary stage, supreme importance of the, [16], [17], [18], Chapter [V]
• Ergonics, [127], [182]
• Ergonic construction, compared with grammatical construction, [30], [173]
• —— description of, [175], [176], [177]
• Ergons, [159], [160]
• Etymology, a branch of linguistics, [24], [126]
• —— of the studial order, [50]
• —— abuse of, [51]
• Etymons, [159]
• Examinations, [62], [63]
• Exercises, articulation, [20], [28], [89], [90], [108], [121], [151], [157]
• Exercises, conversion, [14], [30], [31], [49], [50], [110], [121], [177], [178], [179]
• —— fluency, [90], [121]
• —— question and answer, [96], [121]
• Explanations, abuse of, [102]
• —— as means of eliminating bewilderment, [142], [143]
• —— sometimes helpful, [168]
• —— in foreign language, [169]
• Extensive reading, compared with intensive reading, [165], [166], [167]
• Eye-work contrasted with ear-work:
• Ears before eyes, [23], [53], [117]
• Abuse of eye-work, [42], [49], [70]
• Successful results from ear-work, [44]
• Eye-work of the studial order, [49]
• Opposing views on subject, [150]
• Facility, fallacy of, [116]
• False gradation, [116], [117]
• Fluency, exercises, [90], [121]
• —— accuracy in, [108]
• —— immediate or gradual?, [156], [157], [158]
• Game-like exercises, [27], [144], [145]
• German prepositions and cases, [100]
• —— substitution table, [177]
• Gestures, [96], [135]
• Gift for language-study, [14], [33], [36], [43], [44], [94]
• Gradation, principle of, [22], [23], [24], Chapter [X]
• ‘Grammatical construction’ compared with ‘ergonic construction,’ [30], [173], [174], [179], [181]
• Habit-forming and habit-adapting, principle of, [20], [21], [43], [80], Chapter [VIII]
• —— process, [17], [19], [20], [21], [136]
• —— and interest, [26]
• —— in initial stage, [69]
• —— as initial preparation, [85], [86], [93]
• Habits, utilization of existing, [19], [21], [85], [86], [104], [105]
• Habits, bad, positive and negative, [72]
• —— —— forming of, [84]
• —— —— how to prevent, [121]
• —— —— cause of, [122]
• Heuristic method, [139]
• Idiomatic forms, [159]
• Immediate association, [26], [132], [133], [134], [135]
• —— comprehension, [20], [94], [95], [96]
• —— and prolonged memory, [23], [119], [120]
• Imperative drill, [96]
• Inaccuracy, two types of, [22]
• Inconsistencies, seeming, [163]
• ‘Incorrect’ or ‘ungrammatical’ English, [39]
• Incubation, periods of, [65]
• Initial preparation, principle of, [19], [20], Chapter [VII]
• Intensive and extensive reading, [165], [166], [167]
• Interest, principle of, [26], [27], [28], Chapter [XIII]
• —— fallacy in connexion with, [137], [138], [139]
• Intonation, when to introduce, [28], [153], [154], [157]
• —— accuracy in, [108]
• —— and proportion, [123]
• —— English system of, [37]
• Inventions, evolution in, [75], [76]
• Irregularities, shall we include or exclude? [27], [155], [158]
• Isolating habit, [17], [71]
• Japanese writing, [53]
• Jespersen, Professor, [78]
• Language of ceremony, [15]
• —— of savage peoples, [37]
• Latent capacities for language-study, [46], [47], [82]
• Linguistics, five chief branches of, [24], [80], [126]
• ‘Memorized matter,’ [30], [31], Chapter [XVI]
• Memorizing key-sentences, [64]
• —— word-groups, [71], [157]
• —— on a large scale, [91], [92]
• Memorizing contrasted with theory-learning, [100], [165], [166], [167]
• —— and fear of tedium, [101]
• Mental reading and writing, [50], [87], [91]
• Method of discovery, [139]
• Methods of the future, [76], [77]
• Mimicry, [20], [90], [91]
• Morse code, [169]
• Multiple line of approach, principle of, [29], [30], Chapter [XV]
• Mystery words and sentences, [142]
• Nonsense words, [88] n.
• Oral repetition, [119]
• Order of progression, ancient and modern, [159], [160]
• Orthography, a branch of linguistics, [24], [126]
• —— not a product of nature, [52]
• —— accuracy in, [109], [112]
• —— and proportion, [124]
• Phonetics, a branch of linguistics, [24], [126]
• —— progress made by science of, [77]
• —— English and French systems compared, [103]
• —— data furnished by, [112]
• Phonetic dictation, [88]
• Phonetic transcription, more ‘natural’ than traditional spelling, [52]
• —— —— exclusive use of, [109]
• —— —— and proportion, [124]
• —— —— the acme of simplicity, [141]
• —— —— arguments for and against, [152], [153], [157]
• —— —— and the reform movement, [180]
• Pidgin-speech, a form of inaccuracy, [22], [42], [55], [56], [110], [111]
• —— as an aim, [62]
• —— better than none, [72]
• —— definition and examples of, [107]
• —— and constructed matter, [173]
• Plateaux, [144]
• Principles of language-teaching, [18], [19], Chapter [VI]
• Progress, a factor of interest, [27], [143], [144]
• Programme of study, depends on aim of student, [15], [16], [65], [66]
• Proportion, principle of, [24], [25], Chapter [XI]
• Psychologists and language-study, [78], [109]
• Question-and-answer exercises, [96], [121]
• Rate of progress, [23], [65], [73], [80], [113], [114]
• Rational order of progression, principle of, [28], [29], Chapter [XIV]
• Reading should be preceded by oral work, [119]
• Reception before production, [23], [118]
• Reform movement, [179], [180], [181]
• Repetition, and automatism, [21], [101]
• —— and interest, [21], [101]
• —— definition of, [101]
• Rules and exceptions, lists of, [115]
• Saussure, de, [78]
• Semantics, a branch of linguistics, [24], [25]
• —— bad habits in connexion with, [71]
• —— future of, [77]
• —— inaccuracy in, [110]
• —— data afforded by, [112]
• —— and gradation, [115], [116]
• —— and proportion, [127]
• Shortened forms, [156]
• Shorthand, and orthography, [49], [52], [149]
• —— not learnt by method of discovery, [139]
• —— text-books not written in shorthand, [169]
• Special or patent method in language-study, [164]
• Spelling, reformed, [52]
• —— difficulties of, [54]
• Spontaneous capacities for acquiring speech, [13], [14], Chapter [I]
• Student and his aim, [15], [16], Chapter [IV]
• Studial capacities for acquiring speech, [14], Chapter [II]
• —— —— why we must use, [14], [15], Chapter [III]
• Substitution process, [165]
• —— table, [176] n., [177]
• Sweet, Dr, [78]
• Syntax, a branch of linguistics, [24], [126]
• —— and gradation, [115]
• Teacher and student, [27], [145]
• Theory and practice, [19], [82], [83], [168]
• ‘Tonetics,’ [37]
• Translation, as method of teaching meanings, [26], [132]
• —— abuse of, [17], [71], [180]
• —— a form of conversion, [49]
• —— a studial process, [50]
• —— the art of, [63]
• —— or no translation? [165], [166], [167]
• —— and the reform movement, [180], [181]
• Trial and error, method of, [19], [83], [84], [111]
• Unconscious assimilation, [87], [95], [168]
• Units of speech, [116], [170]
• Unphonetic writing, [53]
• Unwritten English grammar, [38], [39]
• Variety, necessity for, [27], [147]
• Vicious tendencies, we must react against, [56], [107], [124]
• —— —— relative immunity from, [57], [58]
• —— —— various types of, [70], [71], [72], [102], [122]
• Vocabulary, nucleus of, [114]
• —— selection of, [127]
• Word-order, inaccuracy in, [109]
• Word or sentence first? [154], [155]
• Written or spoken language first? [149], [150]

FOOTNOTES

[1] It will be preferable for these to be ‘nonsense words,’ that is to say, artificial words with no meaning, for if real known words are articulated to us we may possibly write down not the sounds that we really hear but some sort of ingenious phonetic transliteration of the orthographic form of the word.

[2] Victor Egger, La Parole intérieure: “Souvent ce que nous appelons entendre comprend un commencement d’articulation silencieuse, des mouvements faibles, ébauchés, dans l’appareil vocal” (Ribot).

[3] A typical example has just been noticed by the writer: a Dutch student’s pronunciation of ‘know it’ was almost unintelligible, but when advised to replace this rendering by the Dutch word nooit he produced a very close approximation to the English pronunciation.