Now it is just as easy, by our theory, to explain this system of rivers and valleys, as it is to understand the single appearance of a river and a valley. But it is only in this manner that such a complicated operation, of a series in rivers and their valleys, is to be explained; and we can neither suppose the land to be formed with this intention by a supernatural cause, nor imagine any other natural cause so arranging things, upon the surface of the earth, as to form this perfect system, which holds of nothing but itself; a system in which is manifested wisdom, so far as all the parts are properly adapted to each other, and thus made to answer that intention which is so visible in the economy of this world.
The direction of the principal valleys of the Alps, or every mountainous region of the globe, may be considered as proceeding from the centre of that region to the plain country in which each river is to terminate; each secondary river with its valley then branches from the primary as from a stem, consequently runs in a direction perpendicular or inclined to the other. But the secondary rivers also have their branches; and subordinate branches still are branched. In thus tracing rivers and their branchings, we come at last to rivulets that only run in times of rain, and at other times are dry. It is here I would wish to carry my reader, in order to be convinced, with his proper observation, of this great fact,—that the rivers, in general, have hollowed out their valleys.
The changes of the valley of the main river are but slow, the plain indeed is wasted in one place, but it is repaired in another, and we do not perceive the place from whence that repairing matter had proceeded. Therefore, that which here appears does not immediately suggest to the spectator what had been the state of things before the valley had been hollowed out, or before that plain, through which the river runs so naturally as being in the lowest place, was made. But it is otherwise in the valley of the rivulet; no person can examine this subject without seeing that the rivulet carries away matter which cannot be repaired except by wearing away some part of the mountain, or the surface of that place upon which the rain, which forms the stream, is gathered. In those rivulets, or their little plains, we see the detached parts remaining in the soil, and also the place from whence those detached parts were taken. Here we need no long chain of reasoning from effect to cause; the whole operation is in a manner before our eyes. In this case, it requires but little study to replace the removed parts; and thus to see the work of nature, resolving the most hard and solid masses by the continued influences of the sun and atmosphere. In this state of things, we are easily made to understand how heavy bodies are travelled along the declivity of the earth, by means of water running from the height.
Such is the system of rivers and their valleys; nor is there upon the continent a spot on which some river has not run. But, in the Alps of Switzerland and Savoy, there is another system of valleys, above that of the rivers, and connected with it. These are valleys of moving ice, instead of water. This icy valley is also found branching from a greater to a lesser, until at last it ends upon the summit of a mountain, covered continually with snow. The motion of things in those icy valleys is commonly exceeding slow, the operation however of protruding bodies, as well as that of fracture and attrition, is extremely powerful.
To illustrate those operations of excavating the valleys of rivers and of thus undermining mountains which fall by their proper weight, I shall transcribe some descriptions of what is to be found among the Alps. But first I would wish to carry my reader to the summit of that country, to examine the state of that part which nothing can have affected but the immediate influences of the sun and air. After having thus formed some idea of the summit of this wasting country, we shall next examine the valleys through which the materials of the degraded summit must have travelled.
In order to give a proper idea of this central part of the Alps, which is so interesting a part in the natural history of the earth, M. de Saussure, in the plates of his Voyages dans les Alpes, tom. 2. has given us two views, the one in profile, the other in face, of the Mont-Blanc. I have caused copy those plates, which are necessary to be consulted in reading the following description of this centre of the Alps.
This author has taken much pains to form, to himself a proper idea of the object which we have now in view; and he gives a description of the Mont-Blanc as seen from the top of the Cramont. It is that description which I am now to transcribe[17].
Footnote 17:[ (return) ] Voyage dans les Alpes, tom. 2.
§ 910. «Le premier objet de mon étude fut le Mont Blanc. Il se présente ici de la maniere la plus brillante et la plus commode pour l'observateur. On l'embrasse d'un seul coup-d'oeil, depuis sa base jusqu'à sa cime, et il semble avoir écarté et rejeté sur ses épaules son manteau de neiges et de glaces pour laisser voir à découvert la structure de son corps. Taillé presqu'à pic dans une hauteur perpendiculaire de 1600 toises, les neiges et les glaces ne peuvent s'arrêter que dans un petit nombre d'échancrures, et il montre partout à nud le roc vif dont il est composé.
«Sa forme paroît être celle d'une pyramide, qui presente au sud-est du côté du Cramont une de ses faces. L'arrête droite de cette pyramide du côté du sud-ouest, monte au sommet, en faisant avec l'horison un angle de 23 à 24 degrés. L'arrête gauche du coté du nord-est, monte au même sommet sous un angle de 23 à 24 degrés, en sorte que l'angle au sommet est d'environ 130 degrés.