- 自自在在 zz‘ zz‘ ’zé ’zé, at ease.
- 活的活的 weh tih weh tih, constantly moving.
- 什蓋什蓋 seh ké‘ seh ké‘, thus.
- 適適意意 suh suh í‘ í‘, comfortably.
Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time, become adverbs by repetition.
302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as to form compound adverbs.
- 加 ká, add, forms yöh ká, 越加; í‘ ká, 又加; kung‘ ká, 更加 still more.
- 發 fah, produce, forms 越發 yöh fah; still more.
- 隨 zûe, follow, 隨時 zûe zz, always; 隨處 zûe t’sû‘, everywhere.
303. It will be seen in the next section, that some words marked as adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is also true. For some words, such as 越, 且, 如 yöh, ’t’síe, zû regarded in this work as primitive conjunctions, form adverbial phrases.
- 並且勿是 ping‘ ’t’síe veh ’zz, it certainly is not so.
- 如同皇帝能 zû dóng wong tí‘ nung, like the emperor.
304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying verbs, and expressive of place and quantity are for the most part derived. On the other hand, those adverbs that qualify adjectives, and express time are usually primitive. In our own language, the adverbs that qualify affirmations, e.g. assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here they are primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been often supposed to present no resemblance in etymological development to the speech of the rest of mankind. The Romans made their adverbs of place out of demonstrative pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very similar to the Chinese, (e.g. hic here, supra above, etc.) Adjectives with particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of manner, (cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive adverbs of time, while the root stá stand, in statim, exactly corresponds to 立 lih, stand, in 立刻 lih k’uh, immediately. It may be added that zén, hú, etc. in [Art. 259] form appendages to the root, of the same value as the terminations -ly, -like, to which we are accustomed. What is new, is the extensive use of repetitions, the great number of fixed phrases, and the peculiarities in the laws of grouping.
Section 10. Conjunctions.
305. The primitive conjunctions may be thus classed:—
- a. Connectives, 咾 lau, 也 ’á, and; 且, ’t’siá, 而 rh. and, further.
- b. Adversatives 但 dan‘. Forms like 但是 dan‘ ’zz 獨是 tóh ’zz, but, etc. are compounded of adverbs, verbs, etc.
- c. Illative 故 kú‘, 蓋 ké‘ (keh), therefore.
- d. Causal. 因 yung, 為 wé‘, because.
- e. Conditional. 末 meh, 若 záh, 倘 ’t’ong.
- f. Antithetical, 雖 sûe, 然 zén, 或 wóh, 越 yöh, 也 ’á, 又 i‘.