1837. Jules Sebastian Cesar Dumont D'Urville, was despatched by King
Louis Philippe of France for the prosecution of scientific researches
on a voyage round the World. His cruise in the Antarctic resulted in
the charting of Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land to the south
of America (American Quadrant) and the discovery of a portion of the
Antarctic continent, named Adelie Land, southward of Australia
(Australian Quadrant).
1838. Charles Wilkes, United States Navy, in accordance with a bill
passed by Congress, set out on an exploring expedition to circumnavigate
the World. His programme included the investigation of the area of
the Antarctic to the south of Australia—the Australian Quadrant.
The squadron composing this American expedition first visited the
Antarctic regions in the American Quadrant, and then proceeded eastward
round to the Australian Quadrant from which, after a long cruise, they
returned, reporting land at frequent intervals in the vicinity of the
Antarctic Circle between longitudes 157 degrees 46' E. and 106 degrees
19' E. He shares with D'Urville the full honour of the discovery of
Adelie Land. Some of the supposed landfalls known to be non-existent.
1839. James Clark Ross proceeded south in charge of a scientific
expedition fitted out by the Admiralty at the instance of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science and approved of by the Royal
Society. His aim was to circumnavigate the Antarctic regions and to
investigate the Weddell Sea. The geographical results were fruitful;
the Ross Sea, the Admiralty Range and the Great Ice Barrier were
discovered and some eight hundred miles of Antarctic coastline were
broadly delineated.
1844. T. E. L. Moore was detailed by the Admiralty to supplement
the magnetic work of Ross and to explore to the southward of Africa
and of the Indian Ocean, but no additions were made to geographical
knowledge.
1872. Eduard Dallmann, whilst engaged in whaling with a German
steamer to the southward of America, added some details to the map of
the Palmer Archipelago but did not go further south than 64 degrees
45' S. Iatitude.
1874. The 'Challenger' scientific expedition, under the command of
George Strong Nares, in the course of their voyage from the Cape to
Australia during the circumnavigation of the World penetrated within
the Antarctic Circle in longitude 78 degrees 22' E.
1892. A fleet of four Scottish whalers cruised through the north
western part of the Weddell Sea. Scientific observations were made
by W. S. Bruce and others, but no geographical discoveries were
recorded.
1892. C. A. Larsen, master of a Hamburg whaler, added important
details to the geography of the American Quadrant of Antarctica on
the western side of the Weddell Sea.
1894. Evensen, master of another Hamburg whaler, brought back further
information of the American Quadrant on the Pacific Ocean side.
1895. H. J. Bull organized a whaling venture and with Leonard
Kristensen, master of the ship, revisited the Ross Sea area where
a landing was made at Cape Adare (Australian Quadrant). This was the
first occasion on which any human being had set foot on the Antarctic
continent.
[TEXT ILLUSTRATION]
Antarctic land Discoveries Preceding 1896 (A. J. Hodgeman)
1897. Adrien de Gerlache sailed from Belgium on a scientific exploring
expedition to the American Quadrant. Important additions were made to
the map, but the ship became frozen into the pack-ice and drifted about
for a whole year south of the Antarctic Circle. The members of this
expedition were the first to experience an Antarctic winter. Antarctic
exploration now entered upon a new era.
1898. Carstens Egeberg Borchgrevink led an expedition, fitted out by
Sir George Newnes; its objective being the Ross Sea area. Further
details were added to the map, but the most notable fact was that the
expedition wintered at Cape Adare, on the mainland itself. The Great
Ross Barrier was determined to be thirty miles south of the position
assigned by Ross in 1839.
1898. Chun of Leipsig, in charge of the 'Valdivia' Expedition, carried
out oceanographical researches far to the south, in the vicinity of
Enderby Land (African Quadrant), though he did not come within sight
of the continent.
1901. Robert Falcon Scott, in command of the 'Discovery' Expedition,
organised by the Royal Geographical Society and Royal Society with
the co-operation of the Admiralty, in accordance with a scheme of
international endeavour, passed two winters at the southern extremity
of the Ross Sea and carried out many successful sledging journeys.
Their main geographical achievements were: the discovery of King
Edward VII Land; several hundred miles of new land on a "farthest
south" sledging journey to latitude 82 degrees 17' S.; the discovery
of the Antarctic plateau; additional details and original contributions
to the geography of the lands and islands of the Ross Sea.
1901. A German national expedition, led by Erich von Drygalski, set
out for the region south of the Indian Ocean. After a small party
had been stationed on Kerguelen Island, the main party proceeded
south close to the tracks of the Challenger. They came within sight
of Antarctic shores but were frozen into the pack-ice for a whole
year. Kaiser Wilhelm II Land was discovered close to the junction
between the Australian and African Quadrants.
1901. A Swedish national expedition, planned and led by Otto
Nordenskjold, wintered for two years on Snow Hill Island in the
American Quadrant, and did much valuable scientific work.
1902. William Speirs Bruce organized and led a Scottish expedition to
the Weddell Sea, southward of the Atlantic Ocean. The party effected
notable oceanographic researches and wintered at the South Orkney
Islands, but were foiled in their attempt to penetrate the pack-ice.
During the second season, conditions were more favourable and the ship
reached Coats Land in 74 degrees 1' S. Iatitude.
1903. Jean Charcot organized and led a French expedition to the
American Quadrant and there added many details to the existing chart.
1907. Ernest Henry Shackleton organized and led a British
expedition with the main object of reaching the South Geographical
Pole. His party wintered at Cape Royds, McMurdo Sound, and two main
sledging parties set out in the early summer. E. H. Shackleton's
party ascended the Antarctic plateau and penetrated to within ninety
seven geographical miles of the South Pole, discovering new land beyond
Scott's "farthest south." T. W. Edgeworth David's party reached the
South Magnetic Polar Area, filling in many details of the western coast
of McMurdo Sound.
1908. Jean Charcot organized and led a second French expedition to
extend the work accomplished in 1903 in the American Quadrant. He was
successful in discovering new land still further to the south.
Loubet, Fallieres and Charcot Lands, towards and beyond Alexander I
Land, were added to the map of Antarctica.
1910. Roald Amundsen organized an expedition for scientific research
in the vicinity of the North Pole but changed his plans, eventually
heading for the South Pole. The expedition wintered on the Ross
Barrier near King Edward VII Land, from which point he set out and
attained the South Geographical Pole, mapping in new land on the way.
Another party visited King Edward VII Land.
1910. Robert Falcon Scott led a second Antarctic expedition, the main
object of which was to reach the South Geographical Pole. The
principal party wintered near his old winter quarters at Hut Point,
McMurdo Sound. A second party was landed at Cape Adare. Scott
reached the Pole soon after the Norwegian Amundsen, but he and his
party perished on the return journey. Other parties added details to
the map of Victoria Land. Oates Land was sighted from the ship to the
westward of Cape Adare in the Australian Quadrant.
1910. A Japanese expedition sailed to the Ross Sea, but on account of
the lateness of the season was forced to turn back without landing.
The winter was spent at Sydney, New South Wales. Next year a summer
visit was made to the South, but no additional land discoveries were
made.
1911. A German expedition, led by Wilhelm Filchner, proceeded to the
Weddell Sea; the South Pole being its objective. The party
succeeded in reaching further south in that region than any previous
navigators and discovered new land, to be named Prince Luitpold Land.
They were driven northwards amongst the pack in a blizzard and spent
the winter frozen in south of Coats Land.
[TEXT ILLUSTRATION]
A Map of the Antarctic Regions as Known at the Present Day
1915
APPENDIX IV
Glossary
Oceanography. The study of the ocean, including the shape and
character of its bed, the temperature and salinity of the water at
various depths, the force and set of its currents, and the nature of
the creatures and plants which haunt its successive zones.
Neve. [n,e acute, v, e acute] The compacted snow of a snow-field;
a stage in the transition between soft, loose snow and glacier-ice.
Sastrugi. The waves caused by continuous winds blowing across the
surface of an expanse of snow. These waves vary in size according to
the force and continuity of the wind and the compactness of the snow.
The word is of Russian derivation (from zastruga [sing.], zastrugi
[pl.] ), denoting snow-waves or the irregularities on the surface of
roughly-planed wood.
Ice-foot. A sheath of ice adhering along the shores of polar lands.
The formation may be composed of attached remnants of floe-ice,
frozen sea-spray and drift-snow.
Nunatak. An island-like outcrop of rock projecting through a sheet of
enveloping land-ice.
Shelf-ice. A thick, floating, fresh water ice-formation pushing out
from the land and continuous with an extensive glacier. Narrow
prolongations or peninsulas of the shelf-ice may be referred to as
ice-tongues or glacier-tongues.
Barrier is a term which has been rather loosely applied in the
literature of Antarctic Exploration. Formerly it was used to
describe a formation, which is mainly shelf-ice, known as the Great
Ross Barrier. Confusion arose when "Barrier" came to be applied to
the seaward ice-cliff (resting on rock) of an extensive sheet of
land-ice and when it was also employed to designate a line of
consolidated pack-ice. Spelt with a small "b" the term is a
convenient one, so long as it carries its ordinary meaning; it seems
unnecessary to give it a technical connotation.
Blizzard. A high wind at a low temperature, accompanied by drifting,
not necessarily falling snow.
Floe or Floe-ice. The comparatively flat, frozen surface of the sea
intersected by cracks and leads (channels of open water).
Pack or Pack-ice is a field of loose ice originating in the main from
broken floe, to which may be added material from the disintegration
of bergs, and bergs themselves.
Brash or Brash-ice. Small, floating fragments of ice—the debris of
larger pieces—usually observed bordering a tract of pack-ice.
Bergschrund has been "freely rendered" in the description of the
great cleft between the lower part of the Denman Glacier and the
Shackleton Shelf-Ice (Queen Mary Land). In a typical glacier, "the
upper portion is hidden by neve and often by freshly fallen snow
and is smooth and unbroken. During the summer, when little snow
falls, the body of the glacier moves away from the snow-field and a
gaping crevasse of great depth is usually established, called a
'Bergschrund', which is sometimes taken as the upper limit of the
glacier" ("Encyclopaedia Britannica").
Sub-Antarctica. A general term used to denote the area of ocean,
containing islands and encircling the Antarctic continent, between the
vicinity of the 50th parallel of south latitude and the confines of
the ice-covered sea.
Seracs are wedged masses of icy pinnacles which are produced in the
surface of a glacier by dragging strains which operate on crevassed
areas. A field of such pinnacles, jammed together in broken
confusion, is called serac-ice
The following colloquial words or phrases occurring in the narrative
were largely determined by general usage:
To depot = to cache or to place a stock of provisions in a depot;
drift = drift-snow;
fifty-mile wind = a wind of fifty miles an hour;
burberry = "Burberry gabardine" or specially prepared wind-proof
clothing;
whirly (pi. whirlies) = whirlwind carrying drift-snow and pursuing a
devious track;
night-watchman = night-watch;
glaxo = "Glaxo" (a powder of dried milk);
primus = primus stove used during sledging;
hoosh = pemmican and plasmon biscuit "porridge";
tanks = canvas bags for holding sledging provisions;
boil-up = sledging meal;
ramp = bank of snow slanting away obliquely on the leeward side of an
obstacle;
radiant = an appearance noted in clouds (especially cirro-stratus)
which seem to radiate from a point on the horizon
The following appended list may be of biological interest:
Birds Aves
Emperor penguin Aptenodytes forsteri
King penguin Aptenodytes patagonica
Adelie penguin Pygoscelis adeliae
Royal penguin Catarrhactes schlegeli
Victoria penguin Catarrhactes pachyrynchus
Gentoo or Rockhopper penguin Pygoscelis papua
Wandering albatross Diomedea exulans
Mollymawk or Black-browed albatross Diomedea melanophrys
Sooty albatross Phoebetria fuliginosa
Giant petrel or nelly Ossifraga gigantea
MacCormick's skua gull Megalestris maccormicki
Southern skua gull Megalestris antarctica
Antarctic petrel Thalassoeca antarctica
Silver-grey petrel or southern fulmar Priocella glacialoides
Cape pigeon Daption capensis
Snow petrel Pagodroma nivea
Lesson's petrel Oestrelata lessoni
Wilson petrel Oceanites oceanicus
Storm petrel Fregetta melanogaster
Cape hen Majaqueus oequinoctialis
Small prion or whale bird Prion banksii
Crested tern Sterna sp.
Southern black-backed or Dominican gull Larus dominicanus
Macquarie Island shag Phalacrocorax traversi
Mutton bird Puffinus griseus
Maori hen or "weka" Ocydromus scotti
Seals Pinnipedia
Sea elephant Macrorhinus leoninus
Sea-leopard Stenorhynchus leptonyax
Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddelli
Crab-eater seal Lobodon carcinophagus
Ross seal Ommatophoca rossi
Whales and Dolphins Cetacea
Rorqual, finner, or blue whale Balaenoptera sibbaldi
Killer whale Orca gladiator
APPENDIX V
Medical Reports
Western Base (Queen Mary Land)
by S. E. Jones, M.B., CH.M.
There was a very marked absence of serious illness during the whole
period of our stay at the Base. After the 'Aurora' left Adelie Land
on January 19, 1912, for her western cruise, an epidemic of influenza
broke out. It should be noted that one case occurred on the voyage
south from Hobart, and then an interval of almost a month occurred
before the infection spread. An interesting feature of the outbreak
was the fact that the recovery of those who were convalescing, when
we arrived at Queen Mary Land, was much more rapid than was the case
with those whose convalescence occurred on the Ship.
By the careful use of snow-goggles during the summer, snow-blindness
was practically prevented, and such cases as occurred yielded quickly
when zinc and cocaine tablets were used and the eyes obtained rest.
An undoubted factor in the causation of snow-blindness is the strain
caused by the continual efforts at visual accommodation made
necessary on dull days when the sun is obscured, and there is a
complete absence of all light-and-shade contrast.
Although frostbites were frequent during the winter months, immediate
attention to the restoration of circulation prevented the occurrence
of after-effects, so that no one suffered the loss of any more tissue
than the superficial epithelium. The nose, ears, fingers and toes
were the parts which suffered first.
Our supplies of food were excellent in point of view of variety. Some
tinned onions were responsible for several mild attacks of poisoning,
but these were not used after our first experience. There was no sign
of scurvy in any form.
Hoadley, on one occasion, had an unpleasant experience. He was alone
in the hut sleeping one night when he awoke to find the room filled
with smoke. On going outside he found that the chimney had become
blocked with snow; as the fire was banked, the hut was filled with the
gases from the imperfect combustion of the coal. It was three or four
days before Hoadley recovered from his experience, having marked
symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning.
On my return from the Western Depot journey I found that Wild was
suffering from an attack of herpes zoster. The illness came on while
he was out sledging, and he suffered severely from the pain and
irritation.
Beyond a few cases of minor illness, and one or two accidents, there
was nothing of serious moment to report.
Main Base (Adelie Land)
by A. L. McLean, M.B., CH.M., B.A.
Throughout the whole period of the Expedition—from December 2, 1911,
to February 26, 1914—the health of the expedition was remarkably
good. Undoubtedly Antarctica has a salubrious climate, and it is
simply because one returns in a measure to the primitive that such an
ideal result is obtained.
The first thing to resist is the cold, and additional clothing is the
first and adequate means to such an end. No one needs to be specially
inured to a rigorous climate. If he has a normal circulation he
immediately reacts to a new set of temperature conditions, and in a
few weeks may claim to be acclimatized. Most of the members of the
expedition were Australians, so that the change of latitudes was
rather abrupt but none the less stimulating and healthful.
Appetite for food had suddenly a new piquancy, hard manual work was
a pleasure in a novel and wonderful environment, the intellect and
imagination were quickened and the whole man embodied the mens sana
in corpore sano. That is why illness was practically unknown for more
than two years; and, further, it may be said with partial truth that
in the high sense of physical and mental fitness he possessed for a
time, lies the explanation of the proverbial desire of an explorer
to return to the ice-lands.
Regular monthly examinations of the blood were made from the date of
leaving Hobart in December 1911 until October 1912, with an interval
of about nine weeks between the first and second examinations. The
haemoglobin or red colouring-matter went up with a leap and then very
steadily increased in amount during the winter months in Adelie Land.
The blood pressure became slightly more marked, the weight increased,
but as one might have expected, the resistance to ordinary civilized
germs was decreased. With regard to weight, the maximum amount gained
by a single individual during a period of eight weeks was almost two
stones, and every one became heavier by as much as ten pounds. As
clinical evidence of the loss in immunity may be quoted the epidemic
of influenza to which Dr. S. E. Jones referred. As well, it was noted
that several members had attacks of "boils" during the voyage
southward; in Adelie Land during 1912 there were two instances of acute
abscesses on the fingers (whitlows) and one jaw abscess. It appears as
if, with its new and unbounded energy of function, the body attempts to
throw oft its waste products. Then, too, experimental observations of
opsonic index pointed towards the lowering of resistance, and, by the
way, it was rather a remarkable fact that after a few months in Adelie
Land, staphylococcus pyogenes aureus—a common germ in civilization-
could not be cultivated artificially from the throat, nose or skin, of
six individuals from whom monthly bacteriological cultures were made.
Within the Hut, at a temperature which ranged from 40 degrees to
45 degrees F., the number of micro-organisms continuously increased,
if the exposure of agar plates at regular intervals (by night) gave
a true indication. The organisms were staphylocci albi, bacilli, yeasts,
and moulds; the latter overgrowing the plate after it had been for forty
eight hours in the incubator.
Frostbites were common, but, perhaps for that reason, were not regarded
seriously. No one suffered permanent harm from being frost-bitten,
though in several cases rather extensive blisters formed and nails and
skin were lost.
Whilst the Hut was being built, minor casualties often occurred; the
common remedy being to cover the injured part with a small piece of
gauze surrounded by adhesive tape; for open wounds will not heal
when exposed to the cold. The Greenland dogs had small accidents and
ailments which often required treatment.
On sledging journeys snow-blindness was an affection which sooner or
later caught every one in an unguarded moment. That moment was when
he ceased to use goggles if the light were at all trying to his eyes.
Prevention came first, and then the "zinc and cocaine" cure.
Adelie Land can only be regarded as an intolerable country in which
to live, owing to the never-ceasing winds. Usage and necessity
helped one to regard the weather in the best possible light; for the
sake of a few hours of calm which might be expected to occasionally
intervene between the long spells of the blizzards. It is, therefore,
with regret and some diffldence that I speak of the illness of Mr. S.
N. Jeffryes, who took up so conscientiously the duties of wireless
operator during the second year (1913); but upon whom the monotony
of a troglodytic winter life made itself felt. It is my hope that he
is fast recovering his former vigour and enthusiasm.**
So many miles of sledging were done at both Antarctic Bases in a
climate which is surely without a parallel in the history of polar
travelling, the Ship was so often in jeopardy during her three main
cruises to the South, that we feel the meagre comment should be made
on our providential return to civilization with the loss of two
comrades whose memory will ever be imperishable to each one of us.
** With the advent of summer, Jeffryes became normal, but unfortunately
suffered a temporary relapse upon his return to Australia.—D. M.
APPENDIX VI
Finance
A General reference was made to the finances of the expedition in the
Introduction. Here is an extended statement which, more fully amplified
with a detailed list of donations, will be again published when
additional funds have been raised to pay off the debit balance and
establish equilibrium.
GRANTS AND DONATIONS
AUSTRALIA, January 1911: L
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, L1000;
R. Barr Smith (South Australia), L100; Hugh Denison (Sydney),
L1000; Samuel Hordern (Sydney), L1000 (subsequently increased
to L2500)........................... 4,000
LONDON, June 1911:
S. Hordern (Sydney), L1500 (second donation); Roderick Murchison
(Melbourne), L1000; W. A. Horn (South Australia), L1000;
Lord Strathcona, L1000; Eugene Sandow, L1050; Imperial Government,
L2000; Royal Geographical Society, L500; Lionel Robinson (Sydney),
L250; C. D. Mackellar, L150; G. P. Doolette, L150; G. Buckley,
L150; Lord Denman, L100; Madame Melba (Melbourne), L100;
S. Y. Buchanan, L100 (later increased to L200); Daily Mail,L100;
Messrs. Bullivants L100, &c., aggregating an additional L593.. 9,843
AUSTRALIA, October 1911:
Sydney: Government grant, L7000; collected by L.
Professor David, L50; 'Sydney Morning Herald',
L100; Professor David's own donation and
lecture proceeds, L100............... 7,250
Melbourne: Government grant, L6000; collected by
Professor Masson, L70............... 6,070
Adelaide: Government grant, L5000; collected by
Mr. Piper, L250 (including Angus L100, Simpson L85,
Scarfe L50).................... 5,250
Hobart: Government grant, L500; collected, L55... 555
Commonwealth grant 5,000
________
24,125
Carried forward...... 37,968