That which again unsealed the lyric fountains was Romanticism. Whatever else this much discussed but ill defined word involves—sympathy with the middle ages, new perception of the world of nature, interest in the foreign and the unusual—it certainly suggests a radically new estimate of the importance and of the authority of the individual. It was to the profit of the individual that the old social and political forms had been broken up and melted in the Revolution. It could seem for a moment as if, with the proclamation of the freedom and independence of the individual, all the barriers were down that hemmed in his free motion, as if there were no limits to his self-assertion. His separate personal life got a new amplitude, its possibilities expanded infinitely, and its interest was vastly increased. The whole new world of ideas and impulses urged the individual to pursue and to express his own personal experience of the world. CHATEAUBRIAND made the great revelation of the change that had taken place, and in spite of the fact that his instrument is prose, the lyric quality of many a passage of René was as unmistakable as it was new. But the lyric impulse could not at once shake off literary tradition. It needed to learn a new language, one more direct and personal, one less stiff with the starch of propriety and elegance. The more spontaneous and genuine it became, the closer it approached this language. DELAVIGNE won great applause by his Messéniennes (1815-19), but the lyric impulse was not strong enough in him to make him independent of the traditional rhetoric. MME. DESBORDES-VALMORE, less influenced by literary training and more mastered by the emotion that prompted her, found the real lyric note. But it was especially LAMARTINE whose poetic utterance was most spontaneous and who recovered for France the gift of lyric expression. His Méditations poétiques (1820) were greeted with extraordinary enthusiasm and marked the dawn of a new era in French poetry.
But other influences making for a poetic revival were multiplied. A very important one was the spreading knowledge of other modern literatures, particularly those of England and Germany with their lyric treasures. Presently there began to be a union of efforts for a literary reform, as in the Renaissance, and the Romantic movement began to be defined. Its watchword was freedom in art, and as a reform it was naturally considerably determined by the classicism against which it rebelled. The qualities that it strove to possess were sharply in contrast with those that had distinguished French poetry for two hundred years, if they were not in direct opposition to them: in its matter, breadth and infinite variety took the place of a narrow and sterile nobility—"everything that is in nature is in art"; in its language, directness, strength, vigor, freshness, color, brilliancy, picturesqueness, replaced cold propriety, conventional elegance and trite periphrasis; in its form, melody, variety of rhythm, richness and sonority of rhyme, diversity of stanza structure and flexibility of line were sought and achieved, sometimes at the expense of the old rules. By 1830 the young poets, who were now fairly swarming, exhibited the general romantic coloring very clearly. Almost from the first VICTOR HUGO had been their leader. His earliest volume indeed contained little promise of a literary revolution. But the volume of Orientales (1828) was more than a promise; it held a large measure of fulfilment, and is a landmark in the history of French poetry. The technical qualities of these lyrics were a revelation. They distinctly enlarged the capacity of the language for lyrical expression.
There are three other great lyric poets in the generation of 1830: DE VIGNY, DE MUSSET, and GAUTIER. De Vigny annexed to the domain of lyric poetry the province of intellectual passion and a more impersonal and reflecting emotion. De Musset gave to the lyric the most intense and direct accent of personal feeling and made his muse the faithful and responsive echo of his heart. Gautier was an artist in words and laid especial stress on the perfection of form (cf. l'Art, p. 190); and it was he especially that the younger poets followed.
By the middle of the century the main springs of Romanticism began to show symptoms of exhaustion. The subjective and personal character of its lyric verse provoked protest. It seemed to have no other theme but self, to be a universal confession or self-glorification, immodest and egotistical. And it began to be increasingly out of harmony with the intellectual temper, which was determined more and more by positive philosophy and the scientific spirit. LECONTE DE LISLE voiced this protest most clearly (cf. les Montreurs, p. 199), and set forth the claims of an art that should find its whole aim in the achievement of an objective beauty and should demand of the artist perfect self-control and self-repression. For such an art personal emotion was proclaimed a hindrance, as it might dim the artist's vision or make his hand unsteady. Those who viewed art in this way, while they turned frankly away from the earlier Romanticists, yet agreed with them in their concern for form, and applied themselves to carrying still farther the technical mastery over it which they had achieved. Their standpoint greatly emphasized the importance of good workmanship, and the stress laid upon form was revealed, among other ways, by a revival of the old fixed forms. The young generation of poets that began to write just after the middle of the century, generally recognized LECONTE DE LISLE as their master, and were called Parnassiens from le Parnasse contemporain, a collection of verse to which they contributed. They produced a surprising amount of work distinguished by exquisite finish, and making up for a certain lack of spontaneity by intellectual fervor and strong repressed emotion.
But the rights of subjective personal emotion could not long be denied in lyric poetry. Even LECONTE DE LISLE had not succeeded in obliterating its traces entirely, and if he achieved a calm that justifies the epithet impassible, given so freely to him and to his followers, it is at the cost of a struggle that still vibrates beneath the surface of his lines. Presently emotion asserted its authority again, more discreetly and under the restraint of an imperious intellect in SULLY PRUDHOMME, readily taking the form of sympathy with the humble, in FRANÇOIS COPPÉE, or returning to the old communicative frankness of self-revelation with VERLAINE. With VERLAINE we reach a conscious reaction from the objective and impersonal art of the Parnassiens. That art found its end in the perfect rendering of objective reality. The reaction sought to get at the inner significance and spiritual meaning of things, and looked at the objective reality as a veil behind which a deeper sense lies hidden, as a symbol which it is the poet's business to penetrate and illumine. It also moved away from the clear images, precise contours, and firm lines by which the Parnassiens had given such an effect of plasticity to their verse, and sought rather vague, shadowy, and nebulous impressions and the charm of music and melody (cf. VERLAINE'S poem, Art poétique, p. 288). This is in general the direction taken by the latest generation of poets, symbolists, decadents, or however otherwise they are styled, for whom VERLAINE'S influence has been conspicuous. They make up rather an incoherent body, whose aims and aspirations, more or less vague, are by no means adequately indicated by this brief statement of their tendency. They have by no means said their last word. But the accomplishment of their movement hitherto has been marred, and its promise for the future is still threatened, by a fatal and seemingly irresistible tendency toward unintelligibility.
Notes:
[1] Special commendation may be given to the large work by various scholars under the direction of Petit de Julleville now in process of publication, and also to the shorter histories, in one volume, of Gustave Lanson (1895) and F. Brunetière (1897). An English translation of the latter is published by T. Y. Crowell & Co., New York.]
[2] A large number of the chansonniers are represented in the collection by Dumersan and Noel Ségur, Chansons nationales et populaires de France, 2 vols., 1566, to which an account of the French chanson is prefixed. Specimens of the chanson populaire may be read in T.F. Cranes Chansons populaires de la France, New York, Putnam, 1891: an excellent historical sketch and a bibliography make this little volume a good introduction to the reading of French popular poetry.
Anthologies and collections : Crépet, les Poètes Français, 4 vols., 1887; G. Masson, la Lyre française, London (Golden Treasury Series); G. Saintsbury, French Lyrics, New York, 1883; P. Paris, le Romancero français, 1833; K. Bartsch, Romanzen und Pastourellen, Leipzig, 1870; Bartsch and Horning, la Langue et la Littérature françaises depuis le IXe jusqu'au XIVe siècle, 1887; L. Constans, Chrestomathie de l'ancien français à l'usage des classes, 1884; Histoire littéraire de la France, vol. xxiii; Darmesteter and Hatzfeld, le Seizième siècle en France, 1878; F. Godefroy, Histoire de la littérature française depuis le XVIe siècle jusqu'à nos jours, 6 vols., 1867; Lemerre, Anthologie des poètes du XIXe siècle, 1887-88; le Parnasse contemporain, 3 series, 1866, 1869, 1876.
For reference: Good historical and critical notices may be found in several of the above, especially in Crépet, Darmesteter and Hatzfeld, and the Histoire littéraire; Jeanroy, Origines de la poésie lyrique en France, 1889; G. Paris, Origines de la poésie lyrique en France, Journal des Savants, 1891, 1892; G. Paris, la Poésie française au XVe siècle (leçon d'ouverture), 1886; Sainte-Beuve, Tableau historique et critique de la poésie au XVIe siècle; F. Brunetière, l'Évolution des genres, vol. i, 1890; Villemain, Tableau de la littérature française au XVIIIe siècle, passim; Th. Gautier, Étude sur les progrès de la poésie depuis 1830 (in Histoire du romantisme); C. Mendès, Légende du Parnasse contemporain, 1884; F. Brunetière, Évolution de la poésie lyrique au XIXe siècle, 2 vols., 1894; J. Tellier, Nos poètes, 1888.