The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers

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V. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE PUNIC OR CARTHAGINIAN WARS TO THE FOUNDING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 264-30, B. C.

Great Events of Period. 300-200: Rome mistress of Italy; then, victorious over Carthage, extends her influence to Greece and Spain. Peasant proprietors replaced by slaves in Italy. 200-100: Greece, Macedonia, Carthage, and Spain under Roman rule; decline of the Roman Oligarchy; the Gracchi begin the democratic revolution which ends in the empire. Eastern luxury introduced among the Romans. 100-1: The Romans govern all the countries around the Mediterranean. Roman Oligarchy is followed by establishment of the empire.

B. C.	Carthage	Rome		Macedonia	Greek States	Seleucid Empire	Palestine	Egypt	Parthia	China, India, Japan	B. C.
		III. Epoch of the Punic Wars, and Beginning of the Universal Rule of Rome(264-146)
	264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. Carthaginians led by Hamilcar, father of Hannibal.			262. Antigonus took Athens. End of its independence andpolitical importance.		261. Revolt of Parthians from Seleucid rule.Parthian kingdom formed.	The Jews remained subject to Egypt down to B. C. 203, in comparative peace.
	256. Regulus invades Africa and is defeated byXanthippus, a Spartan general.	260. First Roman fleet built. Victory at sea.			255. Antigonus liberates Athens. Athens joins the Achæan League.
		Scipio Africanus.
		ARCHIMEDES (287-212).
250									250-248. Arsaces I. founds the kingdom of Parthia, having killed Agathocles, and expelled theMacedonians.		250
	241. Peace with Carthage. The ceded parts of Sicilyformed the first Roman province there.							247-30. Ptolemy III., Euergetes. Extended his empire by conquests in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persia,Susiana, and Media, and extends his influence as far as Thrace and Macedonia.
	238. Hamilcar begins establishment ofCarthaginian power in Spain.	241. The Roman fleet under Catulus defeats the Carthaginians off the Ægatian Islands.
	HANNIBAL (247-183).			227. War between Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and the Ætolian league.
				226. Athens freed from Macedonia allied with Rome.
225		224. The Romans first cross the Po.				223. AntiochusIII., the Great, ruled Syria, Phœnicia to Egypt.					225
	221. Hannibal succeeds Asdrubal in the command.	219. Hannibal takes Saguntum and crosses the Alps.								221-210. China: Chi-Huang-Ti, first universal emperor. Great wall built.
	218-201. SECOND PUNIC WAR. Hannibal crossed the Alps.
		217. Romans defeated at Lake Trasimeno.				217. Antiochus III. defeated by Ptolemy Philopater in the battle of Raphia.
		216. Romans at Cannæ totally defeated by Hannibal. Fabius Maximus, Dictator.							216. Arsaces III., King of Persia.
		215. Treaty between Hannibal and Philip V. of Macedonia.
		214-205. FIRST WAR WITH MACEDONIA.
		212. Syracuse taken by Marcellus. Archimedes killed.				212-206. Campaigns in Upper Asia against the Parthians and Bactrians.
		211. Capua taken by the Romans.		211. Alliance of Rome, the Ætolians, Spartans, Eleans and Illyria.	211. The Ætolians secure the alliance of Rome against the Achæans and theMacedonians.
		209. Publius Scipio takes New Carthage.
		207. Nero and Livy defeat Hasdrubal at the Metaurus—Hasdrubal killed. Here it wasdecided that the civilization of the world was to be Roman rather than Carthaginian.			207. Battle of Mantinea: Philopœmen, the general of the Achæan League, defeats theSpartans.
		206. The Carthaginians defeated in the battle of Ilipa and driven out of Spain.								206. China: The dynasty of Han founded; it lasts until 221 A. D. One of the most brilliantperiods in the history of China.
	204. Scipio carries the war into Africa.			204. General peace.				205. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. Lost most of the cities of Palestine and Phœnicia to Antiochus andthe cities of the Hellespont to Philip V. of Macedon. Egypt assisted by Rome.
	202. Flight of Hannibal. Carthage conquered. Battle ofZama. End of Punic War.			203. Philip wages war against Attalus and the Rhodians.			203. Judæa submits to Antiochus the Great.		Roman influence prevails from this time
200				200-197. SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR.	198. The Achæans and Spartans join the Romans against Macedonia.	198. Antiochus defeats the Egyptiansunder Scopas in a great battle in Palestine.	198. The Jews assist Antiochus in expellingScopas and the Egyptian troops from Jerusalem; final establishment of the Syrian power in Palestine.			199-138. India: So-called “Greek Kings.”	200
				197. Philip V. defeated at Cynoscephalæ by the Romans under Flamininus.
	196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, whom he urges to carry on war against the Romans.	195. Cato in Spain.		196. Macedonian Greece declared free by the Romans.		195. Hannibal flees to Antiochus III.			196. Arsaces IV., King of Parthia.
	193. Masinissa, King of Numidia, harasses the Carthaginians, and injures their commerce.	192-190. War with Antiochus of Syria, who is totallydefeated at Magnesia by Scipio Asiaticus.				192. Syria at war with Rome. 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus III. at Magnesia and compels him to cede all of Asia Minor exceptingCilicia.		193. Ptolemy marries the daughter of Antiochus the Great.
		Rome the Arbitress of Nations, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates.			189. The Ætolian League crushed by the Romans.	189. Armenia revolts from the Seleucid rule and establishes its independence.
	The dangers which threaten Carthage are much increased by the rising jealousy of Rome, the daringhostilities of Masinissa, and the factious spirit of her own citizens.				188. Philopœmen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus in Sparta.	187. Antiochus III. killed; succeeded by Seleucus IV.Philopator.		187. Ptolemy renews his alliance with the Achæans.
				181. Demetrius is put to death by his father.	183. Philopœmen is taken prisoner and put to death by the Messenians. Decline of theAchæan League.			181-146. Ptolemy VI. (Philometor).	181-174. Arsaces V., conquers the Mardians on theCaspian.
		177. Istria subdued.		179. Death of Philip.
175					172. The Romans effect the dissolution of theBœotian confederacy.	175-164. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes. Universally hated and despised.	175. Deposition of the high priest Onias.		174-136. Mithridates I., raises Parthia to an exaltedrank.		175
		171-168. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR.				171. Invades Egypt, and gains a victory at Pelusium.		171-168. War with Antiochus Epiphanes.
		168. Decisive battle of Pydna, and overthrow ofthe kingdom of Macedon.				170. Another victory. Subjugation of Egypt as far as Alexandria.	170. Tyranny of Antiochus.
							167. Revolt of Mattathias, which proves remarkably successful.
		The Romans aspire to universal empire. Increased patronage of literature and the arts.Grecian system of education adopted at Rome.				164. Dies on his way to Babylon. Loss of Babylonia, Persia, and allthe countries between the Euphrates and Indus.	166-161. Judas Maccabæus.	164. Partition of the kingdom. Physcon receives Cyreneand Libya.		166. China: Tartar invasion.
						161-150. Demetrius I. Soter.	161-142. Jonathan joins the party of Alexander Bala, and becomes the leading man inJudæa. Continued struggle of the Jews, in defence of their civil and religious rights to130.
	152. Masinissa’s party expelled from Carthage,which leads to a war. Masinissa defeats the Carthaginians. Carthage at this time contained 700,000inhabitants.	155-150. Spanish War. The Roman arms unsuccessful in Spain.			155. Embassy of Diogenes, Carniades, and Critolaus to Rome.	153-152. Alexander Bala. Occupies Ptolemais.
150	149-146. THIRD PUNIC WAR.			148. Macedon reduced to a Romanprovince.	150. Dissensions between the Spartans and Achæans.	150. Demetrius killed in battle. 150-125. Demetrius II. Nicator.regains his father’s kingdom by the aid of Ptolemy Philometor.					150
	146. P. Scipio Æmilianus takes and destroysCarthage. A Roman province.	149-8. FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR. Cato’s continual harangue“Delenda est Carthage.”			146. Fall of Corinth. Roman province ofAchæa.			146-117. Ptolemy VII. (Euergetes II.), a cruel and odious tyrant.
		IV. Epoch of the Civil Wars Down to the Absolute Rule of Octavian, After the Battle of Actium.
	Affairs in the West	Affairs and Civil Wars in Rome			Affairs in the East
	146-140. War with Viriathus, the gallant leader of the Lusitani, who maintains a six years’ war withRome.	A struggle arises between the aristocracy (the nobiles and optimates, or rich families ofsenators and magistrates) and the plebs, or common people.
	145. Æmilianus is sent against Viriathus.
	143-133. Numantine War of ten years.							143. Embassy of Scipio Africanus to Alexandria.
	140. Viriathus is treacherously murdered, and Lusitania becomes a Roman province.									140. China: Vouti, Emperor, Great Ruler. Invasion of Huns.
		133-121. CivilTroubles under the Gracchi.			133. Pergamus bequeathed to Rome by Attalus III.	137-128. Antiochus VI. Sidetes, marries Cleopatra.			138. The invasion of Demetrius II. of Syria.
	128. Flaccus reduces the Transalpine Ligurians. Increase of Roman power in Transalpine Gaul.	130. The Tribunes obtain a seat and the right of voting in the senate.				129. War with Parthia, in which Antiochus is slain,126. The succeeding history of the Seleucidæ is a horrid picture of civil wars, familyfeuds, and deeds of violence.	130. John Hyrcanus, aided by the Parthians, asserts his entire independence.	130. The Alexandrines rebel. The king flees to Cyprus.	128. Invasion of Antiochus. Parthian empire ishenceforward freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings.
125	122. Aix, the first Romancolony in Gaul. Gaul a Roman province.	123. Tribunate of Caius Gracchus. Renewal of the Agrarian Law.							124-87. Mithridates II., restores tranquillity to theEast after a long succession of bloody wars. He meets with a powerful rival in Tigranes I., King ofArmenia.		125
		121. General struggle in the city. C. Gracchus and 3000 citizens killed.Triumph of the aristocracy.			118. Death of Micipsa, King of Numidia, andassassination of Hiempsal by Jugurtha.	111. Conclusion of war by apartition of territory. Syria and Phœnicia are the only provinces that acknowledge the sway of the king of Syria.	110. Hyrcanus joins theSadducees.	117-81. Ptolemy VIII. (Soter II.)
							106. Alexander Jannæus.	Cleopatra and her younger son, Alexander, jointly reign in Egypt.
	Rome Affairs in the West	Affairs and Civil Wars in Rome			Rome Affairs in the East	Seleucid Empire	Palestine	Egypt	Parthia	China, India, Japan
	113-101. Cimbrian War. The Cimbrians and Teutones migrate along the Danube to theboundaries of Illyria.				111-106. JUGURTHINE WAR. Mummius and Metellus take part in it; andMarius ends it by the capture of Jugurtha, 106.	Syria
100					96. Cyrene bequeathed to the Romans byApion.		98-97. Jannæus besieges and takes Gaza.			97-30. Japan: Sujin, Mikado. Important reforms.	100
	91-88. Marsian or SocialWar which costs the lives of 300,000 men; and ends in the concession of the rights and privileges of Roman citizenship to theItalian states.				92. Sulla settles the affairs of Asia Minor.				92. First public transaction between Rome and Parthia.
	83-72. Sertorius, the opponent of Sulla, goes intoSpain, becomes general of the Lusitani.	88-82. FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR OF MARIUS AND SULLA. Sulla obtains the command against Mithridates.Marius by an alliance with Sulpicius and the people. Sulla is created perpetual dictator.			88-63. Wars with Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus.	83. Tigranes, King of Armenia, is invited by the Syriansto assume the crown.		82. Revolt and three years’ siege ofThebes, which is captured and destroyed.
		CICERO (106-43).
	78. War with Rome.	79-78. Abdication and death of Sulla. Rising splendor ofRome. Marble theater of Saurus for 80,000 spectators. Magnificent houses of the Roman nobles. Library of Lucullus.
	72. The Helvetii and other tribes, underAriovistus, advance into Gaul, but are defeated by JULIUS CÆSAR, 58.	73-71. WAR WITH SPARTACUS the gladiator, at the headof 70,000 slaves in Italy. Concluded by Crassus and Pompey.			74. Bithynia bequeathed to Rome by King Nicomedes III.	69. He is expelled by Lucullus.			68-60. Arsaces XII.contemporary with the third Mithridatic War.
		65-62. Catiline’s conspiracy suppressed by thevigilance of Cicero.			66. Pompey in Asia, about the Caucasus, 65, in Syria, 64. Settles the affairs of Asia, 63.	65-62. Antiochus Asiaticus is expelled by Pompey, whoreduces Syria to a Roman province.	63. Judæa dependent upon Romans.	This period of Egyptian history is very obscure.
		60. First Triumvirate: Cæsar, Pompey and Crassus.
	58-51. GALLIC WAR. Cæsar’s eight campaigns in Gaul—he arrests the invasion of the Helvetiiand expels the Germans.					By the absorption of Syria, Rome comes into touch with the Parthian power.
	55. First invasion of Britain, and expedition into Germany.
	54. Second invasion of Britain. 54-53. Cæsar crossesthe Rhine, but is unsuccessful in his attack upon the Germans.				54-53. Parthian War, in which Crassus is slain.		54. Crassus pillages the Temple.		54. First war with Rome caused by the invasion of Crassus.
						52. Parthians overrun Syria and threaten Antioch.			52-51. The Parthians invade Syria.
50	49-31. SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR between Cæsar andPompey: Cæsar crosses the Rubicon with 6,000 men, and in sixty days makes himself master of Italy. Cæsar marches into Spain,and forces Pompey’s troops to surrender.										50
		48. Cæsar gains the decisive victory of Pharsalla over Pompey, who flees into Egyptand is there slain.					48. Antipater, by the influence of Julius Cæsar, he is appointed procurator of Judæa.	48. Alexandrine War. Ptolemy perishes in the contest, and the crown fallsto CLEOPATRA, who reigns jointly with Ptolemy II.
		VIRGIL (70-19).
		47. Cæsar in Asia. War with Pharnaces, King of Bosporus, (“veni, vidi,vici.”)
		46. African War: defeat of Scipio and Juba at Thapsus. Cato killshimself at Utica. Cæsar returns to Rome. Dictator for ten years.
	45. War in Spain: defeat of Pompey’s two sons at Munda—Cæsar returns toRome—Perpetual dictator, and Consul for ten years.
		44. Plans an expedition against the Parthians, but is assassinated in the senate house by Brutus,Cassius, and other conspirators, on the ides of March. Antony and Octavianus (Cæsar’s heir) obtain the upper hand inRome. Second Triumvirate: Antony, Octavianus, and Lepidus.						44. Cleopatra removes her brother by poison.
		42. Civil war of the triumvirate against the republicans—Philippi—death of Brutus andCassius.
		41-30. Quarrels of the Oligarchy.
						40. Parthians invade Syria, take Antioch and Sidon, plunder Jerusalem and advance as far as theMediterranean.	38. Herod, his second son, rises to power by the friendship of Antonyand is appointed king.		38. Arsaces XV.	40. India: Trade with Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, and the East. Period of Hindu power.
							37. He takes possession of Jerusalem and Judæa.
		36. Defeat and death of Pompey.			36. Marcus Antonius invades Parthia but is compelled to retreat with loss.			36. Cleopatra obtains from Antony grant of Phœnicia, Cyrene and Cyprus.	36. Defeats Antony.
		33-30. Civil war between Octavianus and Antony.			34. Antony subdues Armenia.
		31. Defeat of Antony at Actium. Cæsar gains his fleet and army—death ofAntony. Octavianus Cæsar sole master of the republic.						30. Dies by her own hand. A Roman province.
	30. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BEGINS. HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE IS NOW PRACTICALLY THAT OF THECIVILIZED WORLD, DIVIDED INTO LATIN, GREEK AND ORIENTAL PROVINCES.

B. C.	Carthage	Rome		Macedonia	Greek States	Seleucid Empire
		III. Epoch of the Punic Wars, and Beginning of the Universal Rule of Rome(264-146)
	264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. Carthaginians led by Hamilcar, father of Hannibal.			262. Antigonus took Athens. End of its independence andpolitical importance.		261. Revolt of Parthians from Seleucid rule.Parthian kingdom formed.
	256. Regulus invades Africa and is defeated byXanthippus, a Spartan general.	260. First Roman fleet built. Victory at sea.			255. Antigonus liberates Athens. Athens joins the Achæan League.
		Scipio Africanus.
		ARCHIMEDES (287-212).
250
	241. Peace with Carthage. The ceded parts of Sicilyformed the first Roman province there.
	238. Hamilcar begins establishment ofCarthaginian power in Spain.	241. The Roman fleet under Catulus defeats the Carthaginians off the Ægatian Islands.
	HANNIBAL (247-183).			227. War between Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and the Ætolian league.
				226. Athens freed from Macedonia allied with Rome.
225		224. The Romans first cross the Po.				223. Antiochus III., theGreat, ruled Syria, Phœnicia to Egypt.
	221. Hannibal succeeds Asdrubal in the command.	219. Hannibal takes Saguntum and crosses the Alps.
	218-201. SECOND PUNIC WAR. Hannibal crossed the Alps.
		217. Romans defeated at Lake Trasimeno.				217. Antiochus III. defeated by Ptolemy Philopater in the battle of Raphia.
		216. Romans at Cannæ totally defeated by Hannibal. Fabius Maximus, Dictator.
		215. Treaty between Hannibal and Philip V. of Macedonia.
		214-205. FIRST WAR WITH MACEDONIA.
		212. Syracuse taken by Marcellus. Archimedes killed.				212-206. Campaigns in Upper Asia against the Parthians and Bactrians.
		211. Capua taken by the Romans.		211. Alliance of Rome, the Ætolians, Spartans, Eleans and Illyria.	211. The Ætolians secure the alliance of Rome against the Achæans and theMacedonians.
		209. Publius Scipio takes New Carthage.
		207. Nero and Livy defeat Hasdrubal at the Metaurus—Hasdrubal killed. Here it wasdecided that the civilization of the world was to be Roman rather than Carthaginian.			207. Battle of Mantinea: Philopœmen, the general of the Achæan League, defeats theSpartans.
		206. The Carthaginians defeated in the battle of Ilipa and driven out of Spain.
	204. Scipio carries the war into Africa.			204. General peace.
	202. Flight of Hannibal. Carthage conquered. Battle ofZama. End of Punic War.			203. Philip wages war against Attalus and the Rhodians.
200				200-197. SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR.	198. The Achæans and Spartans join theRomans against Macedonia.	198. Antiochus defeats the Egyptiansunder Scopas in a great battle in Palestine.
				197. Philip V. defeated at Cynoscephalæ by the Romans under Flamininus.
	196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, whom he urges to carry on war against the Romans.	195. Cato in Spain.		196. Macedonian Greece declared free by the Romans.		195. Hannibal flees to Antiochus III.
	193. Masinissa, King of Numidia, harasses the Carthaginians, and injures their commerce.	192-190. War with Antiochus of Syria, who is totallydefeated at Magnesia by Scipio Asiaticus.				192. Syria at war with Rome. 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus III. at Magnesia and compels him to cede all of Asia Minor exceptingCilicia.
		Rome the Arbitress of Nations, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates.			189. The Ætolian League crushed by the Romans.	189. Armenia revolts from the Seleucid rule and establishes its independence.
	The dangers which threaten Carthage are much increased by the rising jealousy of Rome, the daringhostilities of Masinissa, and the factious spirit of her own citizens.				188. Philopœmen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus in Sparta.	187. Antiochus III. killed; succeeded by Seleucus IV.Philopator.
				181. Demetrius is put to death by his father.	183. Philopœmen is taken prisoner and put to death by the Messenians. Decline of theAchæan League.
		177. Istria subdued.		179. Death of Philip.
175					172. The Romans effect the dissolution of theBœotian confederacy.	175-164. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes. Universally hated and despised.
		171-168. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR.				171. Invades Egypt, and gains a victory at Pelusium.
		168. Decisive battle of Pydna, and overthrow ofthe kingdom of Macedon.				170. Another victory. Subjugation of Egypt as far as Alexandria.
		The Romans aspire to universal empire. Increased patronage of literature and the arts.Grecian system of education adopted at Rome.				164. Dies on his way to Babylon. Loss of Babylonia, Persia, and allthe countries between the Euphrates and Indus.
						161-150. Demetrius I. Soter.
	152. Masinissa’s party expelled from Carthage,which leads to a war. Masinissa defeats the Carthaginians. Carthage at this time contained 700,000inhabitants.	155-150. Spanish War. The Roman arms unsuccessful in Spain.			155. Embassy of Diogenes, Carniades, and Critolaus to Rome.	153-152. Alexander Bala. Occupies Ptolemais.
150	149-146. THIRD PUNIC WAR.			148. Macedon reduced to a Romanprovince.	150. Dissensions between the Spartans and Achæans.	150. Demetrius killed in battle. 150-125. Demetrius II. Nicator.regains his father’s kingdom by the aid of Ptolemy Philometor.
	146. P. Scipio Æmilianus takes and destroysCarthage. A Roman province.	149-8. FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR. Cato’s continual harangue“Delenda est Carthage.”			146. Fall of Corinth. Roman province ofAchæa.
		IV. Epoch of the Civil Wars Down to the Absolute Rule of Octavian, After the Battle of Actium.
	Affairs in the West	Affairs and Civil Wars in Rome			Affairs in the East
	146-140. War with Viriathus, the gallant leader of the Lusitani, who maintains a six years’ war withRome.	A struggle arises between the aristocracy (the nobiles and optimates, or rich families ofsenators and magistrates) and the plebs, or common people.
	145. Æmilianus is sent against Viriathus.
	143-133. Numantine War of ten years.
	140. Viriathus is treacherously murdered, and Lusitania becomes a Roman province.
		133-121. CivilTroubles under the Gracchi.			133. Pergamus bequeathed to Rome by Attalus III.	137-128. Antiochus VI. Sidetes, marries Cleopatra.
	128. Flaccus reduces the Transalpine Ligurians. Increase of Roman power in Transalpine Gaul.	130. The Tribunes obtain a seat and the right of voting in the senate.				129. War with Parthia, in which Antiochus is slain,126. The succeeding history of the Seleucidæ is a horrid picture of civil wars, familyfeuds, and deeds of violence.
125	122. Aix, the first Romancolony in Gaul. Gaul a Roman province.	123. Tribunate of Caius Gracchus. Renewal of the Agrarian Law.
		121. General struggle in the city. C. Gracchus and 3000 citizens killed.Triumph of the aristocracy.			118. Death of Micipsa, King of Numidia, andassassination of Hiempsal by Jugurtha.	111. Conclusion of war by apartition of territory. Syria and Phœnicia are the only provinces that acknowledge the sway of the king of Syria.
	Rome Affairs in the West	Affairs and Civil Wars in Rome			Rome Affairs in the East	Seleucid Empire
	113-101. Cimbrian War. The Cimbrians and Teutones migrate along the Danube to theboundaries of Illyria.				111-106. JUGURTHINE WAR. Mummius and Metellus take part in it; andMarius ends it by the capture of Jugurtha, 106.	Syria
100					96. Cyrene bequeathed to the Romans by Apion.
	91-88. Marsian or SocialWar which costs the lives of 300,000 men; and ends in the concession of the rights and privileges of Roman citizenship to theItalian states.				92. Sulla settles the affairs of Asia Minor.
	83-72. Sertorius, the opponent of Sulla, goes intoSpain, becomes general of the Lusitani.	88-82. FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR OF MARIUS AND SULLA. Sulla obtains the command against Mithridates.Marius by an alliance with Sulpicius and the people. Sulla is created perpetual dictator.			88-63. Wars with Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus.	83. Tigranes, King of Armenia, is invited by the Syriansto assume the crown.
		CICERO (106-43).
	78. War with Rome.	79-78. Abdication and death of Sulla. Rising splendor ofRome. Marble theater of Saurus for 80,000 spectators. Magnificent houses of the Roman nobles. Library of Lucullus.
	72. The Helvetii and other tribes, underAriovistus, advance into Gaul, but are defeated by JULIUS CÆSAR, 58.	73-71. WAR WITH SPARTACUS the gladiator, at the headof 70,000 slaves in Italy. Concluded by Crassus and Pompey.			74. Bithynia bequeathed to Rome by King Nicomedes III.	69. He is expelled by Lucullus.
		65-62. Catiline’s conspiracy suppressed by thevigilance of Cicero.			66. Pompey in Asia, about the Caucasus, 65, in Syria, 64. Settles the affairs of Asia, 63.	65-62. Antiochus Asiaticus is expelled by Pompey, whoreduces Syria to a Roman province.
		60. First Triumvirate: Cæsar, Pompey and Crassus.
	58-51. GALLIC WAR. Cæsar’s eight campaigns in Gaul—he arrests the invasion of the Helvetiiand expels the Germans.					By the absorption of Syria, Rome comes into touch with the Parthian power.
	55. First invasion of Britain, and expedition into Germany.
	54. Second invasion of Britain. 54-53. Cæsar crossesthe Rhine, but is unsuccessful in his attack upon the Germans.				54-53. Parthian War, in which Crassus is slain.
						52. Parthians overrun Syria and threaten Antioch.
50	49-31. SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR between Cæsar andPompey: Cæsar crosses the Rubicon with 6,000 men, and in sixty days makes himself master of Italy. Cæsar marches into Spain,and forces Pompey’s troops to surrender.
		48. Cæsar gains the decisive victory of Pharsalla over Pompey, who flees into Egyptand is there slain.
		VIRGIL (70-19).
		47. Cæsar in Asia. War with Pharnaces, King of Bosporus, (“veni, vidi,vici.”)
		46. African War: defeat of Scipio and Juba at Thapsus. Cato killshimself at Utica. Cæsar returns to Rome. Dictator for ten years.
	45. War in Spain: defeat of Pompey’s two sons at Munda—Cæsar returns toRome—Perpetual dictator, and Consul for ten years.
		44. Plans an expedition against the Parthians, but is assassinated in the senate house by Brutus,Cassius, and other conspirators, on the ides of March. Antony and Octavianus (Cæsar’s heir) obtain the upper hand inRome. Second Triumvirate: Antony, Octavianus, and Lepidus.
		42. Civil war of the triumvirate against the republicans—Philippi—death of Brutus andCassius.
		41-30. Quarrels of the Oligarchy.
						40. Parthians invade Syria, take Antioch and Sidon, plunder Jerusalem and advance as far as theMediterranean.
		36. Defeat and death of Pompey.			36. Marcus Antonius invades Parthia but is compelled to retreat with loss.
		33-30. Civil war between Octavianus and Antony.			34. Antony subdues Armenia.
		31. Defeat of Antony at Actium. Cæsar gains his fleet and army—death ofAntony. Octavianus Cæsar sole master of the republic.
	30. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BEGINS. HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE IS NOW PRACTICALLY THAT OF THECIVILIZED WORLD, DIVIDED INTO LATIN, GREEK AND ORIENTAL PROVINCES.

B. C.	Palestine	Egypt	Parthia	China, India, Japan
	The Jews remained subject to Egypt downto B. C. 203, in comparative peace.
250			250-248. Arsaces I. founds the kingdom of Parthia, having killed Agathocles, and expelled theMacedonians.
		247-30. Ptolemy III., Euergetes. Extended his empire by conquests in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persia,Susiana, and Media, and extends his influence as far as Thrace and Macedonia.
225
				221-210. China: Chi-Huang-Ti, first universal emperor. Great wall built.
			216. Arsaces III., King of Persia.
				206. China: The dynasty of Han founded; it lasts until 221 A. D. One of the most brilliantperiods in the history of China.
		205. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. Lost most of the cities of Palestine and Phœnicia to Antiochus andthe cities of the Hellespont to Philip V. of Macedon. Egypt assisted by Rome.
	203. Judæa submits to Antiochus the Great.		Roman influence prevails from this time
200	198. The Jews assist Antiochus in expellingScopas and the Egyptian troops from Jerusalem; final establishment of the Syrian power in Palestine.			199-138. India: So-called “Greek Kings.”
			196. Arsaces IV., King of Parthia.
		193. Ptolemy marries the daughter of Antiochus the Great.
		187. Ptolemy renews his alliance with the Achæans.
		181-146. Ptolemy VI. (Philometor).	181-174. Arsaces V., conquers the Mardians on theCaspian.
175	175. Deposition of the high priest Onias.		174-136. Mithridates I., raises Parthia to an exaltedrank.
		171-168. War with Antiochus Epiphanes.
	170. Tyranny of Antiochus.
	167. Revolt of Mattathias, which proves remarkably successful.
	166-161. Judas Maccabæus.	164. Partition of the kingdom. Physcon receives Cyreneand Libya.		166. China: Tartar invasion.
	161-142. Jonathan joins the party of Alexander Bala, and becomes the leading man inJudæa. Continued struggle of the Jews, in defence of their civil and religious rights to130.
150
		146-117. Ptolemy VII. (Euergetes II.), a cruel and odious tyrant.
		143. Embassy of Scipio Africanus to Alexandria.
				140. China: Vouti, Emperor, Great Ruler. Invasion of Huns.
			138. The invasion of Demetrius II. of Syria.
	130. John Hyrcanus, aided by the Parthians, asserts his entire independence.	130. The Alexandrines rebel. The king flees to Cyprus.	128. Invasion of Antiochus. Parthian empire ishenceforward freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings.
125			124-87. Mithridates II., restores tranquillity to theEast after a long succession of bloody wars. He meets with a powerful rival in Tigranes I., King ofArmenia.
	110. Hyrcanus joins theSadducees.	117-81. Ptolemy VIII. (Soter II.)
	106. Alexander Jannæus.	Cleopatra and her younger son, Alexander, jointly reign in Egypt.
100	98-97. Jannæus besieges and takes Gaza.			97-30. Japan: Sujin, Mikado. Important reforms.
			92. First public transaction between Rome and Parthia.
		82. Revolt and three years’ siege ofThebes, which is captured and destroyed.
			68-60. Arsaces XII.contemporary with the third Mithridatic War.
	63. Judæa dependent upon Romans.	This period of Egyptian history is very obscure.
	54. Crassus pillages the Temple.		54. First war with Rome caused by the invasion of Crassus.
			52-51. The Parthians invade Syria.
	48. Antipater, by the influence of Julius Cæsar, he is appointed procurator of Judæa.	48. Alexandrine War. Ptolemy perishes in the contest, and the crown fallsto CLEOPATRA, who reigns jointly with Ptolemy II.
		44. Cleopatra removes her brother by poison.
	38. Herod, his second son, rises to power by the friendship of Antonyand is appointed king.		38. Arsaces XV.	40. India: Trade with Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, and the East. Period of Hindu power.
	37. He takes possession of Jerusalem and Judæa.
		36. Cleopatra obtains from Antony grant of Phœnicia, Cyrene and Cyprus.	36. Defeats Antony.
		30. Dies by her own hand. A Roman province.
	30. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BEGINS. HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE IS NOW PRACTICALLY THAT OF THECIVILIZED WORLD, DIVIDED INTO LATIN, GREEK AND ORIENTAL PROVINCES.

VI. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER AUGUSTUS TO ITS PERMANENT DIVISION, B. C. 30-395, A. D.

Great Events of the Period: Rome mistress of the world. The Augustan Age. Golden Age of Roman literature. 1-100, A. D.: Christianity founded amid persecutions. Parthia a powerful state but unequal rival of Rome. 100-200: Zenith of Roman Empire. The good emperors. Persecutions of the Christians continue. 200-300: Emperors chosen by the army. Germanic tribes on Roman borders. Persecutions continue. 300-400: Constantine moves the capital of the empire to Constantinople, and professes Christianity. Rise of Christian Monasticism. Great church disputes. Germanic incursions and settlements. The Roman Empire reaches its greatest territorial extent.

B. C.	The Roman Empire—In Europe, Asia and Africa—Under AugustusCæsar, Emperor				Roman Empire	Parthia	China, Japan, India	B. C.
	31-14. Cæsar Octavianus Augustus. The surname Augustus (the Illustrious, theSublime), which was given Octavianus by the Senate in 27 B. C., is the name by which he was known as sole ruler of the Romanworld.				Palestine
					30. Augustus bestows increase of territory on Herod.		30. Japan: Suinin, a great civilizer.
					29. Herod kills his wife, Mariamne.
	Countries Subject to Roman Dominion		Age of Augustus
	In Europe:—Spain, Gaul, Britain,Italy, Rhætia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyria, Greece, Macedonia,Thrace, Mœsia, Dacia.		27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures.				27. India: Andhra kingdom very powerful.
25	In Asia:—Asia Minor, Syria,Phœnicia, Palestine, the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, Armenia, Mesopotamia,Assyria.		25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. Ælius Gallus, prefect ofEgypt.		25. Herod begins extensive building operations in Judea: rebuilds Samaria, reconstructs temple atJerusalem, 20-19.	25. Tiridates aspires to the sovereignty but is defeated and takes refuge at the court ofAugustus.		25
			22-21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, by Petronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt.
	In Africa:—Egypt, and the whole of thenorthern coast.		20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians. Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom ofArmenia.			20. Phraates restores the standards taken from Crassus.
			19. Subjugation of Spain completed.			18. Sends his sons as hostages to Rome.
	Its distant territories were Scandia, Sarmatia, India,Æthiopia, and Galatia; Rome itself being the common center of the whole.		15. Rhætia made a Roman province, along with Vindelicia (now Augsburg) and Noricum.
			12-9. Drusus undertook four campaigns in Germany proper.		4. Birth of Jesus Christ. Date now generally accepted thoughnot actually certain.	Gradual decline of the Parthian Kingdom.
1 A. D.	German Nations				The Christian Church	Series of struggles for succession to the throne for over one hundred years.		1 A. D.
	6-9. Varus, in his camp on the Weser, governs LowerGermany as a Roman province.		4-6. Campaigns of Tiberius in Germany.		6. Judea made a Roman province under a procurator.
	9. Hermann, or Arminius defeats Varus atWinfield-Lippe. Teutonic independence established by the defeat of the Roman legions. The line drawn between the Germanic and Latinraces.		7. Germanicus is sent into Germany.
	14-17. Expedition of Germanicus.		14-37. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus.				21. India: Gondophares, King of Kabul and Punjab.
25	The Romans from this time maintain military power on the right bank of the Rhine andfrom the Maine to the Danube.				26. Pontius Pilate becomes procurator of Judea.			25
					28-29. Baptism of Jesus Christ and beginning of His public work.
					30. Crucifixion of Jesus Christ.
			37-41. Caligula (properly, Gaius CæsarGermanicus), youngest son of Germanicus.		35-36. ST. PAUL converted to Christianity.
			41-54. Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Nero), son of Drusus, influenced largely by 1, the shamelessMessalina; 2, the ambitious Agrippina.		42. St. Peter, the Apostle, after fillingthe see of Antioch seven years, goes to Rome.
			43. Commencement of the conquest of Britain.		49. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem.
50	50. Colony of Claudius. Agrippa (Cologne) founded.					50. Vologeses I.		50
			54-68. Nero (Nero Claudius Cæsar AugustusGermanicus). Destroys Britannicus and all the Julian family.		56. Paul arrested in Jerusalem.	52. War against Rome for the possession of Armenia Minor.
			59-62. Murders his wife and mother.		59. Paul arrives in Rome.		58. China: Ming-Ti introduces Buddhism.
			64. Fire at Rome, followed,		64. First traditional persecution of Christians, by Nero.
			65. by the persecution of the Christians.		66. Outbreak of Jewish war.	65. Terminated at the death of Tigranes, when Tiridates accepts the crown of Armenia from Nero.
			68. Death of Nero, and extinction of the house ofCæsar.		67. Pope Linus. Vespasian despatched against the Jews.
	69-70. Revolt of the Batavians in Belgian Gaul.		69-79. Vespasianus, (Titus Flavius Vespasianus), one bestof Roman princes. Eruption of Vesuvius and destruction of Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabiæ.		70. The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus.
					72. Conquest of Judea completed.		71-130. Japan: Keiko and Yamato-Dake make large conquests.
75			86-107. DACIAN WARS.		95. Second traditionalpersecution of the Christians, by Domitian.	90. Death of Vologeses. Arsaces XXIV. inalliance with the Romans, embellishes Ctesiphon.		75
			PLUTARCH (50?-120?)
			98-117. TRAJAN (Marcus Ulpius Traianus). Excellentruler and general. Magnificent buildings in Rome (Forum Traianum) and throughout the empire.
100			101-103. Victorious over the Dacians.					100
	106. Dacia a Roman province. The country is filled with Roman colonists. Origin of theLatin language in Hungary.		107. Reduction of part of Arabia.			107. Chosroes (Arsaces XXV.), implicated in a war withTrajan on account of Armenia.	109. China: Conquest of Korea.
			114-116. War with the Parthians, in whichRome is victorious. Armenia and Mesopotamia Roman provinces.		112-113. Third traditional persecution, by Trajan.
			PERIOD OF GREATEST EXTENT OF THE EMPIRE.
			117-138. Hadrian (Publius Ælius Hadrianus) a lover of peace, an excellent administrator,learned and vain.			117. Chosroes restored.
			117. Gives up the provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria.
	121. Roman wall from the Rhine to the Danube by Hadrian.		121. Builds a wall across the north of England.			121. Vologeses II., (Arsaces XXVI.)
125							125. India: Nagar-Juna, great apostle of Buddhism.	125
	German Nations		The Roman Empire—In Europe, Asia and Africa		The Christian Church	Parthia	China, Japan, India
			131. Improves Roman jurisprudence.
	140. The Goths migrate southwards.		138-161. ANTONINUS PIUS, whose reign was the happiest period of the Roman empire.		145. Rise of the Marcionites.	149. Vologeses III., (Arsaces XXVII). Renewalof the war with Rome.
150					154. Canon of Scripture fixed about this time. Justin Martyr publishes his apology for the Christians.			150
					155. Martyrdom of Polycarp; appearance of Montanus.
			161-180. MARCUS AURELIUS, (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), a wise and active sovereign, highlyeducated, a stoic philosopher.
			162-165. Verus successful against the Parthians.
					165. Death of Justin Martyr.	165. Casius destroys Seleucia.
	167-180. War of the league against Rome.		166. The Marcomanni, with their allies, penetrate as far as Aquileia.
	170. Invasion of Illyria as far as Aquileia.
175			178. The Marcomanni andtheir allies renew the war with Rome, and before the close of it M. Aurelius dies, 180, at Sirmium.		177. Fourth traditional persecution, by MarcusAurelius—Irenæus becomes bishop of Lyons.			175
					180. Age of Theophilus and Tatian.
	Franks	Goths	193-284. CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.			191. Vologeses IV., (Arsaces XXVIII.)
			Period of Military Despotism
			193-211. Septimius Severus. Improvements in the administration of justice through the juristPapinianus.
200	The name of Franks, (or free men), was given to a military confederacy of the lower Rhine and theWeser.	200. The Goths enter Dacia, and after crossing the Danube attack the Roman provinces.					201-269. Japan: Jingu-Kogo,most famous of Japanese female sovereigns.	200
			208. Expedition to Britain against the Scots.			207. Defeated by Septimius Severus, who sacks the chief towns of Parthia.
			211-217. Caracalla, (Antoninus Bassianus). By the ConstitutioAntoniana Roman citizenship was conferred upon all the inhabitants of the provinces. Systematic plundering of the provinces, unsuccessfulwars against the Goths in Dacia, cruel treatment of the inhabitants of Alexandria. Plundering expedition against the Parthians.			216. Artabanus IV., (Arsaces XXX), the last of theArsacidæ.
			222-235. SeverusAlexander. Excellent ruler, advised by the jurists Domitius Ulpianus and Julius Paullus.				221-265. China: Epoch of the “Three Kingdoms.”
225						Persia		225
						226-651. Dynasty of the Sassanides.
	238. They invade Gaul.	236-237. They invade lower Mœsia, andexact tribute of the Romans.			235. Origen. Sixth persecution of the Christians, underMaximinus.	226-240. Artaxerxes becomes the founder of the new Persian monarchy.
			248. Celebration of the thousandth anniversary of thefoundation of Rome.		248. Cyprian becomes bishop of Carthage. Monastic life originatesabout this time. Dispute between the churches of Rome and Africa about baptism.
250		250. The Goths, under their king, Ostrogotha, for the first time force their way into the Roman Empire bycrossing the Danube.			251. Seventh persecution of the Christians, under Decius.			250
		258-69. Four great expeditions of the Goths into AsiaMinor and Greece.			257. Eighth persecution, under Valerian.	257. War against the Romans: Sapor advances as far as Cappadocia. The Emperor Valerian takenprisoner.
			268-270. Claudius II. raised to thethrone by the soldiers.		260. Paul, of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, denies the divinity ofJesus Christ.
		272. They are driven from Illyricum and Thrace, and defeated also onthe Danube.	270-275. AURELIANUS. He concluded peace with the Goths by the sacrifice of theprovince of Dacia. He defeated Zenobia in two battles, at Antiochia and at Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged and destroyed Palmyra, capturedZenobia, and reconquered Egypt, 273. Aurelian called “Restorer of the universal Empire.”		270. Manes advocates his doctrines in Persia.	The Sassanidæ, claiming to be descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, form pretensionsto all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman Empire.	270-310. Japan: Ojin, a great warrior.
		274. They obtain Dacia from the Romans.			274. Ninth persecution, under Aurelian.
275			275. Tacitus, Imperator. He defeated the Alani, who had invaded Asia Minor.					275
	277. Extraordinary naval expedition of the ThracianFranks, in the Mediterranean and northern seas.	The Goths, in their progress southward, are joined by countless swarms of barbarians and thusoverwhelm the countries they invade.	276-282. Probus. Drove back the Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and Vandals, entered Germany, andstrengthened the wall between the Rhine and Danube.
			282-283. Carus succeeded. Conquered the Sarmatians.
			284-305. Diocletianus proclaimed imperator by the soldiers.
	288. Maximian transplants a part of them into Gaul.	Gothic monarchy on the banks of the lower Danube and the northern coast of the Black Sea.	Period of Absolute Imperialism.
	294. Repeated migrations.	290. They conquer the Burgundiones.				292-301. Narses.
300					303. Tenth persecution of the Christians, byDiocletian.	301-309. Hormisdas II., builds Ormus.		300
	306. Constantine defeats the Franks, who had invadedGaul.		308. Rebellion in Rome. Six emperors.		305. Persecution of the Christians stopped by Constantius Chlorus.
			310-323. WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.		311. Pope Miltiades. Constantine issues Edict ofToleration.	309-380. Sapor II carries on a series of wars with Rome.	313. Japan: Nintoku, the Sage Emperor.
			323-337. CONSTANTINE, THE GREAT, sole ruler.Christianity recognized by the State and favored at the expense of paganism.		320. Strife of the Donatists in Africa.		320. India: Chandragupta, first supreme emperor of India. Brilliant Gupta Period from 320 to 480.
325			330. Seat of empire moved toConstantinople.		325. The Council of Nice, consisting of three hundred and eighteen bishops, who condemn Arianism. Athanasius, Arius, flourish in the reign of Constantine.	326. Persecution of the Christians.		325
			337. On the death of Constantine the Great, the empire was divided between his threesons: Constantine, Constans and Constantius.		337. Pope Julius I.	337-363. War with Rome. Sapor demands the restitution of all the provinces Persia had formerlypossessed in Asia Minor.
					340. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by Frumentius.—Gothic version of Bible by Wulfila (Ulfilas).
350	356-7. Franks and Alemanni pour intoGaul.	350. Hermanric, King of the Ostrogoths, founds an extensive empire.			352. Pope Liberius. Hilary of Poitiers.—Cyril, Bishop ofJerusalem.			350
			361. Julian, called the Apostate. Disliked Christianity, and tried torestore paganism.		363. Jovian. Restored Christianity.	362-3. War with Julian, who is slain in repulsing thePersians, on the Tigris.
	365-371. Valentinian drives the Alemanniout of Gaul.	366. The Goths invade Thrace, butare defeated by the generals of Valens. Upon the invasion of the Huns, the Ostrogoths separate from the Visigoths.	364. Empire divided into East and West with anemperor ruling in each.
			West	East
			364. Valentinian I.	364. Valens, killed by Goths.		372-420. Peace with Rome.
375			375-493. INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS.					375
		375. Death of Hermanric and fall of his empire.	375. Gratian and Valentinian II.		375. Ambrose of Milan; Martin of Tours.		375. India: Chandragupta II. extended the empire.
		376. The Visigoths pressed by the Huns, implore the protection of Valens, and cross the Danube intoMœsia, which he cedes to them.	383. Valentinian II.	379. Theodosius I. Became a Christian; kept back the Goths;divided Armenia between Rome and Persia.	381. The second general councilof Constantinople. Gregory of Nazianzus made patriarch of Constantinople.	380-383. Artaxerxes II.
			394. The whole empire was, for the last time,reunited under			383-388. Sapor III. Division of Armenia between Persia and Rome.
			394-395. Theodosius. After his death the division of administrationinto an eastern and western section, which had existed for a hundred years, became a permanent division of the empire.
			395. DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE BETWEEN THE SONS OF THEODOSIUS, HONORIUS ANDARCADIUS.